By Revision Genie
States of Matter
Unit 1
Properties of Solids
Properties of Liquids
Properties of Gases
Particle Arrangement in Solids
Particle Arrangement in Liquids
Particle Arrangement in Gases
Particle Motion in Solids
Particle Motion in Liquids
Particle Motion in Gases
Melting and Freezing
Boiling and Condensing
Evaporation Process
Heating Curves
Cooling Curves
Kinetic Particle Theory and State Changes
Effect of Temperature on Gas Volume
Effect of Pressure on Gas Volume
Kinetic Particle Theory and Gas Behavior
Diffusion in Liquids
Diffusion in Gases
Kinetic Particle Theory and Diffusion
Effect of Molecular Mass on Diffusion Rate
Interpreting Particle Diagrams for States of Matter
Comparing Properties of Solids, Liquids, and Gases
Common Misconceptions About States of Matter
Real-Life Applications of State Changes
Factors Affecting Diffusion Rates
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Heating and Cooling Curves
Worked Example: Gas Volume Changes with Temperature
Worked Example: Gas Volume Changes with Pressure
Unit 2
Atoms, Elements, and Compounds
Differences Between Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
Structure of an Atom
Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Relative Masses and Charges of Subatomic Particles
Proton Number and Mass Number
Electronic Configuration of Elements (1-20)
Group Number and Outer Electron Shells
Period Number and Electron Shells
Noble Gases and Full Outer Shells
Definition of Isotopes
Symbols for Atoms and Ions
Chemical Properties of Isotopes
Relative Atomic Mass and Isotopic Abundance
Formation of Positive and Negative Ions
Definition of Ionic Bonding
Ionic Bonding in Group I and Group VII Elements
Dot-and-Cross Diagrams for Ionic Bonds
Properties of Ionic Compounds
Giant Ionic Lattice Structures
Covalent Bond Definition
Covalent Bonding in Simple Molecules
Dot-and-Cross Diagrams for Covalent Molecules
Properties of Simple Molecular Compounds
Weak Intermolecular Forces in Covalent Compounds
Structure and Properties of Diamond
Structure and Properties of Graphite
Uses of Diamond and Graphite
Structure of Silicon Dioxide
Comparison of Diamond and Silicon Dioxide
Definition of Metallic Bonding
Structure of Metals and Delocalised Electrons
Properties of Metals: Conductivity and Malleability
Unit 3
Stoichiometry
Understanding Chemical Formulae
Writing Word Equations
Writing Symbol Equations
Using State Symbols in Equations
Defining Empirical Formula
Determining Empirical Formula from Data
Defining Molecular Formula
Calculating Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula
Constructing Ionic Equations
Balancing Chemical Equations
Understanding Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
Understanding Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)
Calculating Relative Formula Mass for Ionic Compounds
Introduction to the Mole Concept
Understanding the Avogadro Constant
Calculating Moles from Mass
Calculating Mass from Moles
Using Molar Mass in Calculations
Understanding Molar Volume of Gases
Calculating Gas Volumes at Room Temperature and Pressure
Understanding Concentration in g/dm³
Understanding Concentration in mol/dm³
Converting Between g/dm³ and mol/dm³
Calculating Concentration from Moles and Volume
Calculating Moles from Concentration and Volume
Understanding Limiting Reactants
Identifying the Limiting Reactant in a Reaction
Calculating Reacting Masses
Using Stoichiometry to Predict Products
Calculating Percentage Yield
Understanding Percentage Composition by Mass
Calculating Percentage Composition by Mass
Defining Percentage Purity
Calculating Percentage Purity
Using Experimental Data for Titration Calculations
Calculating Moles in a Titration
Calculating Unknown Concentrations from Titration Data
Understanding Stoichiometric Ratios in Reactions
Interpreting Balanced Equations for Reacting Ratios
Calculating Reacting Volumes of Solutions
Understanding the Concept of Excess Reactants
Calculating Excess Reactant Quantities
Interpreting Experimental Errors in Stoichiometry
Common Pitfalls in Stoichiometric Calculations
Practical Applications of Stoichiometry in Real Life
Unit 4
Electrochemistry
Introduction to Electrolysis
Defining Electrolysis
The Role of Electrolytes
Identifying the Anode and Cathode
Movement of Ions During Electrolysis
Electron Flow in the External Circuit
Electrolysis of Molten Lead(II) Bromide
Electrolysis of Concentrated Sodium Chloride Solution
Electrolysis of Dilute Sulfuric Acid
Products at the Cathode: Metals and Hydrogen
Products at the Anode: Non-Metals
Predicting Products of Electrolysis in Molten Compounds
Predicting Products of Electrolysis in Aqueous Solutions
Constructing Ionic Half-Equations
Observations During Electrolysis of Copper(II) Sulfate
Electrolysis Using Inert vs. Copper Electrodes
Applications of Electroplating
Steps in the Electroplating Process
Advantages of Electroplating
Hydrogen–Oxygen Fuel Cells: Basic Principles
Chemical Reactions in Hydrogen–Oxygen Fuel Cells
Advantages of Hydrogen–Oxygen Fuel Cells
Disadvantages of Hydrogen–Oxygen Fuel Cells
Comparison of Fuel Cells and Petrol Engines
Examining the Environmental Impact of Fuel Cells
Common Errors in Predicting Electrolysis Products
Interpreting Electrolysis Diagrams
Practical Setup for Electrolysis Experiments
Safety Precautions in Electrolysis Experiments
Balancing Ionic Half-Equations in Electrolysis
Electrolysis and the Reactivity Series
Energy Considerations in Electrolysis
Industrial Applications of Electrolysis
Purification of Metals Using Electrolysis
Electrolysis in the Extraction of Aluminium
Electrolysis of Brine: Products and Uses
Environmental Concerns of Industrial Electrolysis
Experimental Observations in Electrolysis
Designing an Electrolysis Experiment
Key Definitions in Electrochemistry
Exam Tips for Electrolysis Questions
Unit 5
Chemical Energetics
Definition of Exothermic Reactions
Definition of Endothermic Reactions
Identifying Exothermic Reactions in Everyday Life
Identifying Endothermic Reactions in Everyday Life
Reaction Pathway Diagrams for Exothermic Reactions
Reaction Pathway Diagrams for Endothermic Reactions
Interpreting Reaction Pathway Diagrams
Enthalpy Change (ΔH) in Reactions
Significance of Positive and Negative ΔH
Definition of Activation Energy (Ea)
Role of Activation Energy in Reactions
Drawing Reaction Pathway Diagrams with Activation Energy
Bond Breaking as an Endothermic Process
Bond Making as an Exothermic Process
Energy Changes in Bond Breaking and Bond Making
Calculating Energy Changes Using Bond Energies
Worked Example: Bond Energy Calculations
Common Errors in Bond Energy Calculations
Practical: Measuring Temperature Changes in Exothermic Reactions
Practical: Measuring Temperature Changes in Endothermic Reactions
Heat Energy Transfer and Surroundings
Applications of Exothermic Reactions (e.g., Combustion)
Applications of Endothermic Reactions (e.g., Photosynthesis)
Comparing Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
Energy Conservation in Chemical Reactions
Experimental Design for Investigating Energy Changes
Interpreting Experimental Data for Energy Changes
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Reaction Pathway Diagrams
Exam Trap: Forgetting Units in Bond Energy Calculations
Exam Trap: Confusing ΔH Sign Conventions
Unit 6
Chemical Reactions
Identifying Physical and Chemical Changes
Differences Between Physical and Chemical Changes
Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction: Concentration
Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction: Pressure
Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction: Surface Area
Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction: Temperature
Role of Catalysts in Reactions
Investigating Reaction Rates: Measuring Gas Production
Investigating Reaction Rates: Measuring Mass Change
Interpreting Rate of Reaction Graphs
Collision Theory: Particle Collisions and Reaction Rate
Collision Theory: Activation Energy
Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate Using Collision Theory
Effect of Pressure on Reaction Rate Using Collision Theory
Effect of Surface Area on Reaction Rate Using Collision Theory
Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate Using Collision Theory
How Catalysts Lower Activation Energy
Evaluating Methods for Measuring Reaction Rates
Understanding Reversible Reactions
Identifying Reversible Reactions Using ⇌ Symbol
Effect of Temperature on Reversible Reactions
Effect of Pressure on Reversible Reactions
Effect of Concentration on Reversible Reactions
Role of Catalysts in Reversible Reactions
Dynamic Equilibrium in Closed Systems
Le Chatelier's Principle: Predicting Equilibrium Shifts
The Haber Process: Reaction and Symbol Equation
Raw Materials Used in the Haber Process
Conditions for the Haber Process
Optimising the Haber Process: Rate vs Yield
The Contact Process: Reaction and Symbol Equation
Raw Materials Used in the Contact Process
Conditions for the Contact Process
Optimising the Contact Process: Rate vs Yield
Introduction to Redox Reactions
Oxidation and Reduction: Gain and Loss of Oxygen
Identifying Redox Reactions Using Oxygen Changes
Oxidation as Loss of Electrons
Reduction as Gain of Electrons
Oxidation Numbers: Rules and Assignments
Identifying Redox Reactions Using Oxidation Numbers
Using Potassium Manganate(VII) to Identify Redox Reactions
Using Potassium Iodide to Identify Redox Reactions
Defining Oxidising Agents and Reducing Agents
Identifying Oxidising and Reducing Agents in Reactions
Unit 7
Acids, Bases, and Salts
Properties of Acids with Metals
Properties of Acids with Bases
Properties of Acids with Carbonates
Effects of Acids on Litmus
Effects of Acids on Thymolphthalein
Effects of Acids on Methyl Orange
Definition of Bases and Alkalis
Properties of Bases with Acids
Properties of Bases with Ammonium Salts
Effects of Alkalis on Litmus
Effects of Alkalis on Thymolphthalein
Effects of Alkalis on Methyl Orange
Hydrogen and Hydroxide Ions in Solutions
Using Universal Indicator for pH
Neutralization Reaction Equation
Acids as Proton Donors
Bases as Proton Acceptors
Strong Acids vs. Weak Acids
Examples of Strong and Weak Acids
Classification of Acidic and Basic Oxides
Amphoteric Oxides and Their Properties
Preparation of Soluble Salts via Titration
Preparation of Soluble Salts with Excess Metal
Preparation of Soluble Salts with Excess Insoluble Base
Preparation of Soluble Salts with Excess Insoluble Carbonate
General Solubility Rules for Salts
Hydrated vs. Anhydrous Substances
Preparation of Insoluble Salts by Precipitation
Water of Crystallization Definition
Examples of Hydrated Crystals
Unit 8
The Periodic Table
Structure of the Periodic Table
Periods and Groups
Increasing Proton Number
Metallic and Non-Metallic Trends Across a Period
Group Number and Ion Charges
Predicting Properties Using the Periodic Table
Chemical Properties and Electron Configuration
Trends Within Groups
Group I: Physical Properties
Group I: Chemical Reactivity Trends
Predicting Group I Properties
Group VII: Physical Properties
Group VII: Reactivity Trends
States and Appearance of Halogens at Room Temperature
Displacement Reactions of Halogens
Predicting Group VII Properties
Properties of Transition Elements
Transition Elements as Catalysts
Variable Oxidation States in Transition Elements
Group VIII: Noble Gases as Monatomic Elements
Unreactivity of Noble Gases
Electronic Configuration of Noble Gases
Unit 9
Metals
Physical Properties of Metals
Thermal and Electrical Conductivity
Malleability and Ductility
Melting and Boiling Points of Metals
Chemical Properties of Metals
Reactions with Dilute Acids
Reactions with Cold Water and Steam
Reactions with Oxygen
Uses of Aluminium in Aircraft
Uses of Aluminium in Electrical Cables
Uses of Aluminium in Food Containers
Uses of Copper in Electrical Wiring
Definition and Examples of Alloys
Brass: Composition and Uses
Stainless Steel: Composition and Uses
Physical Properties of Alloys
Structural Representation of Alloys
Why Alloys Are Harder and Stronger
The Reactivity Series of Metals
Reactions of Metals with Cold Water
Reactions of Metals with Steam
Reactions of Metals with Dilute Acids
Displacement Reactions of Metals
Unreactivity of Aluminium and Its Oxide Layer
Conditions for Rusting of Iron
Barrier Methods to Prevent Rusting
Galvanising and Sacrificial Protection
Electron Loss in Sacrificial Protection
Position in Reactivity Series and Metal Extraction
Extraction of Iron in the Blast Furnace
Chemical Reactions in the Blast Furnace
Formation of Slag in the Blast Furnace
Extraction of Aluminium from Bauxite
Role of Cryolite in Aluminium Extraction
Replacement of Carbon Anodes in Aluminium Extraction
Ionic Half-Equations in Aluminium Extraction
Corrosion and Environmental Impact of Metals
Recycling Metals and Its Benefits
Unit 10
Chemistry of the Environment
Chemical Tests for Water
Testing Water Purity
Distilled Water vs Tap Water
Substances in Natural Water Sources
Beneficial Substances in Water
Harmful Substances in Water
Water Treatment Processes
Sedimentation and Filtration in Water Treatment
Use of Carbon in Water Treatment
Chlorination to Kill Microbes
Ammonium Salts and Nitrates as Fertilisers
NPK Fertilisers and Plant Growth
Composition of Clean, Dry Air
Sources of Air Pollutants
Adverse Effects of Air Pollutants
Carbon Dioxide and Global Warming
Carbon Monoxide as a Toxic Gas
Particulates and Respiratory Problems
Methane and Climate Change
Oxides of Nitrogen and Acid Rain
Sulfur Dioxide and Acid Rain
Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming
Thermal Energy Absorption by Greenhouse Gases
Strategies to Reduce Climate Change Effects
Strategies to Reduce Acid Rain
Photosynthesis and Carbon Dioxide Removal
Word Equation for Photosynthesis
Formation of Oxides of Nitrogen in Engines
Catalytic Converters and Pollutant Removal
Symbol Equation for Photosynthesis
Unit 11
Organic Chemistry
Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Definition of Hydrocarbons
Saturated vs Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
The Alkane Series
Properties of Alkanes
Combustion of Alkanes
The Alkene Series
Properties of Alkenes
Addition Reactions of Alkenes
Testing for Unsaturation with Bromine
Cracking of Hydrocarbons
The Alcohol Functional Group
Properties of Alcohols
Combustion of Alcohols
Manufacture of Ethanol: Fermentation
Manufacture of Ethanol: Hydration of Ethene
Comparison of Ethanol Production Methods
The Carboxylic Acid Functional Group
Properties of Carboxylic Acids
Reactions of Carboxylic Acids with Metals
Reactions of Carboxylic Acids with Bases
Reactions of Carboxylic Acids with Carbonates
Oxidation of Alcohols to Carboxylic Acids
Esterification: Formation of Esters
Naming and Drawing Organic Compounds
Structural Isomerism in Organic Compounds
Homologous Series Characteristics
Introduction to Polymers
Addition Polymerisation
Formation of Poly(ethene)
Condensation Polymerisation
Formation of Polyesters
Formation of Polyamides
Natural Polymers: Proteins
Environmental Issues with Plastics
Disposal of Plastics and Recycling
Fossil Fuels as Hydrocarbon Sources
Fractional Distillation of Petroleum
Uses of Petroleum Fractions
Environmental Impact of Hydrocarbons
Functional Groups and Chemical Properties
Chemical Tests for Alcohols
Chemical Tests for Carboxylic Acids
Chemical Tests for Alkanes and Alkenes
Differences Between Addition and Condensation Polymers
Protein Structure and Formation
General Formulae of Organic Compounds
Trends in Physical Properties of Organic Compounds
Reactions of Hydrocarbons with Halogens
Photochemical Reactions of Alkanes
Hydrogenation of Alkenes
Hydration of Alkenes to Form Alcohols
Unit 12
Experimental Techniques and Chemical Analysis
Key Laboratory Apparatus and Their Uses
Measuring Time, Temperature, Mass, and Volume
Safety in the Laboratory
Understanding Solvents, Solutes, and Solutions
Saturated Solutions and Solubility
Residue and Filtrate: Definitions and Examples
Filtration: Principles and Applications
Crystallisation: Techniques and Uses
Simple Distillation: Separating Liquids
Fractional Distillation: Principles and Applications
Gas Syringes: Measuring Gas Volumes
Paper Chromatography: Separating Coloured Substances
Interpreting Chromatograms for Pure and Impure Substances
Calculating Rf Values in Chromatography
Using Locating Agents in Chromatography
Acid-Base Titration: Equipment and Setup
Performing an Acid-Base Titration
Identifying the End-Point of a Titration
Testing for Carbonate Ions with Acids
Testing for Halide Ions with Silver Nitrate
Testing for Nitrate Ions with Aluminium and Sodium Hydroxide
Testing for Sulfate Ions with Barium Nitrate
Testing for Sulfite Ions with Potassium Manganate(VII)
Testing for Ammonium Ions with Sodium Hydroxide
Testing for Metal Cations with Sodium Hydroxide
Testing for Metal Cations with Ammonia
Flame Tests for Metal Cations
Gas Tests: Ammonia, Carbon Dioxide, and Chlorine
Gas Tests: Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Sulfur Dioxide
Purity Testing Using Melting and Boiling Points
Choosing Separation Techniques for Mixtures
Common Errors in Experimental Techniques
Evaluating and Improving Experimental Methods
Planning an Experiment: Variables and Controls
Recording Observations and Measurements Effectively
Interpreting Data from Experiments
Drawing Conclusions from Experimental Results
Chromatography for Colourless Substances
Applications of Fractional Distillation in Industry
Common Exam Traps in Experimental Techniques
Testing for Water Using Cobalt(II) Chloride and Copper(II) Sulfate
Using Indicators in Acid-Base Titrations
Understanding Locating Agents in Chromatography
Common Hazards and Safety Precautions in the Lab