By Revision Genie
Cell Biology
Unit 1
Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cells
Animal Cell Structure and Function
Plant Cell Structure and Function
Drawing and Labeling Cells Using Microscopes
Specialised Animal Cells
Specialised Plant Cells
Cell Differentiation in Animals
Cell Differentiation in Plants
Light vs Electron Microscopy
Magnification Calculations
Chromosomes and Their Structure
The Cell Cycle Overview
Stages of Mitosis
Functions of Mitosis in Organisms
Stem Cells in Embryos
Stem Cells in Adults
Stem Cells in Plants
Therapeutic Cloning
Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Use
Diffusion in Cells
Factors Affecting Diffusion Rate
Surface Area to Volume Ratio in Cells
Adaptations for Material Exchange in Organisms
Osmosis in Cells
Osmosis Practical: Plant Tissue Mass Change
Active Transport in Cells
Comparison of Diffusion, Osmosis, and Active Transport
Unit 2
Organisation
Levels of Organisation in Biology
Cells, Tissues, Organs, and Systems
The Human Digestive System Overview
Structure and Function of Enzymes
The Lock and Key Theory of Enzyme Action
Digestive Enzymes and Their Functions
Amylase: Function and Action
Proteases: Function and Action
Lipases: Function and Action
Role of Bile in Digestion
Testing for Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins
Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity
Structure and Function of the Heart
Double Circulatory System
Blood Vessels: Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
Structure and Function of the Lungs
Role of Pacemakers in the Heart
Components of Blood and Their Functions
Red Blood Cells: Structure and Function
White Blood Cells: Immune Response
Platelets and Blood Clotting
Plasma and Transport of Substances
Coronary Heart Disease Causes and Effects
Treatments for Cardiovascular Diseases
Faulty Heart Valves and Their Treatment
Artificial Hearts and Heart Transplants
Health and Disease: Definitions and Interactions
Factors Affecting Physical and Mental Health
Lifestyle Factors and Non-Communicable Diseases
Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes
Smoking and Lung Disease
Alcohol and Liver Damage
Carcinogens and Cancer Risk Factors
Benign and Malignant Tumours
Genetic and Lifestyle Risk Factors for Cancer
Plant Tissue Types and Functions
Structure and Function of the Leaf
Root Hair Cells: Adaptations for Absorption
Xylem: Structure and Function
Phloem and Translocation
Stomata and Guard Cells
Factors Affecting Transpiration Rates
Measuring Transpiration Rates
Plant Organ Systems for Transport
Unit 3
Infection and Response
What Are Pathogens?
Types of Pathogens
How Pathogens Cause Disease
Spread of Diseases
Preventing Disease Spread
Viral Diseases: Measles
Viral Diseases: HIV and AIDS
Viral Diseases: Tobacco Mosaic Virus
Bacterial Diseases: Salmonella
Bacterial Diseases: Gonorrhoea
Fungal Diseases: Rose Black Spot
Protist Diseases: Malaria
Human Defence Systems: Skin and Mucus
Human Defence Systems: Stomach Acid
White Blood Cells: Phagocytosis
White Blood Cells: Antibody Production
White Blood Cells: Antitoxin Production
What Is Vaccination?
How Vaccines Work
Benefits of Vaccination
Antibiotics: How They Work
Limitations of Antibiotics
Antibiotic Resistance
Painkillers vs Antibiotics
Why Viruses Are Hard to Treat
Discovery of Penicillin
Traditional Sources of Drugs
Modern Drug Development
Preclinical Testing of Drugs
Clinical Trials: Phase 1
Clinical Trials: Phase 2 and 3
Double-Blind Trials
Peer Review in Drug Development
Unit 4
Bioenergetics
Photosynthesis Equation and Symbols
Photosynthesis as an Endothermic Reaction
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis Rate
Measuring Photosynthesis Rate
Graphing Photosynthesis Data
Limiting Factors in Photosynthesis
Inverse Square Law and Light Intensity
Economic Importance of Limiting Factors
Practical: Investigating Light Intensity and Photosynthesis
Glucose Uses in Photosynthesis
Aerobic Respiration Equation and Process
Anaerobic Respiration in Muscles
Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast and Plants
Comparing Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
Energy Uses in Living Organisms
Body's Response to Exercise
Heart Rate and Breathing Rate During Exercise
Anaerobic Respiration During Exercise
Oxygen Debt and Lactic Acid Removal
Muscle Fatigue During Exercise
Metabolism Definition and Importance
Glucose Conversion Processes in Metabolism
Synthesis and Breakdown of Biomolecules
Energy Transfer in Metabolic Processes
Unit 5
Homeostasis and Response
Definition of Homeostasis
Importance of Homeostasis
Internal Conditions Regulated by Homeostasis
Components of Control Systems
Role of Receptors in Control Systems
Role of Coordination Centres in Control Systems
Role of Effectors in Control Systems
Structure of the Nervous System
Functions of the Nervous System
Electrical Impulses in Neurons
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Reflex Actions and Their Importance
Structure of a Reflex Arc
Sensory Neurons and Their Role
Relay Neurons and Their Role
Motor Neurons and Their Role
Synapses and Signal Transmission
Reaction Times and Factors Affecting Them
Human Endocrine System Overview
Glands in the Endocrine System
Comparison of Nervous and Endocrine Systems
Role of the Pituitary Gland
Control of Blood Glucose Levels
Role of Insulin in Blood Glucose Regulation
Type 1 Diabetes Causes and Treatment
Type 2 Diabetes Causes and Treatment
Comparison of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes
Role of Glucagon in Blood Glucose Regulation (HT only)
Negative Feedback in Blood Glucose Control (HT only)
Hormones in Human Reproduction
Puberty and Reproductive Hormones
Menstrual Cycle Overview
Role of FSH in the Menstrual Cycle
Role of LH in the Menstrual Cycle
Role of Oestrogen and Progesterone
Interactions of Hormones in the Menstrual Cycle (HT only)
Hormonal Methods of Contraception
Non-Hormonal Methods of Contraception
Evaluating Contraceptive Methods
Social and Ethical Issues in Contraception
Hormones in Treating Infertility (HT only)
Role of FSH and LH in Fertility Treatments (HT only)
In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) Process (HT only)
Benefits and Risks of IVF (HT only)
Technological Advances in Fertility Treatments (HT only)
Control of Body Temperature
Control of Water Levels in the Body
Coordination Between Nervous and Hormonal Systems
Unit 6
Inheritance, Variation and Evolution
Definition of Inheritance
Genetic Material and DNA
Chromosomes and Genes
Structure of DNA
Role of DNA in Protein Synthesis
Definition of Variation
Types of Variation
Causes of Genetic Variation
Environmental Variation
The Role of Mutations in Variation
Types of Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction
Meiosis Process and Purpose
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
Gametes and Fertilisation
Inheritance of Characteristics
Alleles and Dominance
Genotype and Phenotype
Homozygous and Heterozygous
Monohybrid Inheritance
Using Punnett Squares
Understanding Genetic Crosses
Inheritance of Sex in Humans
Sex Chromosomes and Gender Determination
Genetic Disorders: Cystic Fibrosis
Genetic Disorders: Polydactyly
Screening for Genetic Disorders
Ethical Issues in Genetic Screening
Selective Breeding Process
Advantages of Selective Breeding
Risks of Selective Breeding
Genetic Engineering Definition
Process of Genetic Engineering
Applications of Genetic Engineering
Ethical Concerns in Genetic Engineering
Cloning in Plants: Tissue Culture
Cloning in Plants: Cuttings
Cloning in Animals: Embryo Transplants
Cloning in Animals: Adult Cell Cloning
Advantages of Cloning
Risks and Ethical Issues in Cloning
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
Evidence for Evolution
Darwin's Contribution to Evolution
Speciation Process
Role of Isolation in Speciation
Fossil Evidence for Evolution
Formation of Fossils
Reasons for Fossil Gaps
Extinction Causes and Examples
Impact of Human Activity on Biodiversity
Unit 7
Ecology
Definition of an Ecosystem
Components of an Ecosystem
Biotic and Abiotic Factors
Interdependence in Ecosystems
Food Chains and Food Webs
Trophic Levels in Ecosystems
Energy Transfer in Food Chains
Pyramids of Biomass
Efficiency of Biomass Transfer
The Role of Decomposers
Carbon Cycle Processes
The Importance of the Carbon Cycle
Water Cycle Processes
The Importance of the Water Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle Processes
The Role of Microorganisms in the Nitrogen Cycle
Biodiversity Definition
Why Biodiversity is Important
Human Impact on Biodiversity
Deforestation Causes and Effects
Overfishing and Its Consequences
Pollution and Ecosystems
Impact of Agriculture on Ecosystems
Climate Change and Biodiversity
Conservation Strategies
Protecting Endangered Species
Sustainable Practices in Agriculture
Reforestation and Afforestation
The Role of Zoos and Seed Banks
Evaluating Conservation Methods
Required Practical: Measuring Abiotic Factors
Required Practical: Sampling Techniques
Required Practical: Investigating Decomposition
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Food Webs
Exam Trap: Confusing Biotic and Abiotic Factors
Exam Trap: Mislabeling Trophic Levels
Unit 8
Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
The Structure of an Atom
Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, Electrons
Relative Mass and Charge of Subatomic Particles
The Atomic Number and Mass Number
Using Atomic Number to Identify Elements
Calculating the Number of Subatomic Particles
The Concept of Isotopes
Calculating Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
The Development of the Atomic Model
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model
Rutherford’s Nuclear Model
Bohr’s Planetary Model
The Modern Quantum Model of the Atom
The Periodic Table: Structure and Layout
Groups and Periods in the Periodic Table
Metals and Non-Metals in the Periodic Table
The History of the Periodic Table
Mendeleev’s Contribution to the Periodic Table
The Modern Periodic Table
Trends in Group 1: The Alkali Metals
Reactivity of Alkali Metals
Trends in Group 7: The Halogens
Reactivity of Halogens
Displacement Reactions in Halogens
Trends in Group 0: The Noble Gases
Properties of Noble Gases
Transition Metals: Properties and Uses
Comparing Transition Metals with Group 1 Metals
Electron Shells and Energy Levels
Electronic Configuration of Atoms
Predicting Properties Using the Periodic Table
The Role of Electrons in Chemical Reactions
Using the Periodic Table to Predict Ion Formation
Examining Patterns in Atomic Radius
Trends in Ionisation Energy Across Periods
Trends in Reactivity Across Groups
Common Exam Mistakes: Atomic Structure
Common Exam Mistakes: Periodic Table Trends
Interpreting Data on Isotopes and Ar
Practical: Investigating Group 1 Metal Reactions
Practical: Observing Halogen Displacement Reactions
Practical: Identifying Trends in Group 0 Gases
Practical: Modeling Electron Configurations
Exam Practice: Atomic Structure Questions
Exam Practice: Periodic Table Questions
Unit 9
Bonding, Structure, and Properties of Matter
Introduction to Chemical Bonding
The Ionic Bond
Cations and Anions in Ionic Bonding
Dot and Cross Diagrams for Ionic Compounds
Properties of Ionic Compounds
The Covalent Bond
Dot and Cross Diagrams for Covalent Molecules
Simple Molecular Substances
Properties of Simple Molecular Substances
Giant Covalent Structures
Diamond: Structure and Properties
Graphite: Structure and Properties
Graphene and Fullerenes
The Metallic Bond
Structure of Metals and Alloys
Properties of Metals and Alloys
States of Matter: Solids, Liquids, and Gases
Changes of State and Energy Transfer
Interpreting Heating and Cooling Curves
Particle Theory and State Changes
Limitations of the Particle Model
Polymers: Structure and Properties
Thermosoftening and Thermosetting Polymers
Nanoparticles: Structure and Uses
Risks and Benefits of Nanotechnology
Bulk Properties of Materials
Electrical Conductivity in Different Substances
Melting and Boiling Points in Substances
Density and Particle Arrangement
Bonding and Properties of Ionic Compounds
Bonding and Properties of Covalent Compounds
Bonding and Properties of Metals
Bonding in Polymers
Applications of Bonding in Everyday Materials
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Dot and Cross Diagrams
Exam Trap: Confusing Ionic and Covalent Bonds
Exam Trap: Misunderstanding Metallic Bonding
Exam Trap: Misreading Heating Curves
Unit 10
Quantitative Chemistry
The Mole Concept
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)
Relative Formula Mass (Mr)
Calculating Moles from Mass
Moles and Avogadro's Number
Mass Calculations from Chemical Equations
Law of Conservation of Mass
Chemical Equations and Mass Conservation
Balancing Chemical Equations
Reacting Mass Calculations
Percentage Composition by Mass
Empirical Formula
Calculating Empirical Formula from Experimental Data
Molecular Formula
Calculating Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula
Concentration of Solutions
Calculating Concentration in g/dm³
Calculating Concentration in mol/dm³
Converting Between g/dm³ and mol/dm³
Using Concentration in Titration Calculations
Gas Volumes in Reactions
Molar Volume of Gases
Calculating Gas Volumes from Moles
Volume Ratios in Gas Reactions
Percentage Yield
Calculating Percentage Yield
Atom Economy
Calculating Atom Economy
Importance of Atom Economy in Industry
Concentration Changes in Dilution
Limiting Reactants in Chemical Reactions
Identifying the Limiting Reactant
Calculating Excess Reactants
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Mass Conservation
Exam Trap: Incorrect Units in Calculations
Exam Trap: Balancing Chemical Equations Errors
Exam Trap: Misusing Avogadro's Number
Worked Example: Moles and Mass Calculations
Worked Example: Titration Calculations
Worked Example: Empirical Formula Calculation
Worked Example: Gas Volume Calculation
Worked Example: Percentage Yield Calculation
Worked Example: Atom Economy Calculation
Worked Example: Limiting Reactant Calculation
Practical: Measuring Mass Changes in Reactions
Practical: Investigating Concentration of Solutions
Practical: Titration Techniques
Practical: Investigating Gas Volumes
Practical: Determining Empirical Formula Experimentally
Unit 11
Chemical Changes
The Reactivity Series
Displacement Reactions
Oxidation and Reduction
Extraction of Metals
Using Carbon to Extract Metals
Reactions of Metals with Acids
Reactions of Metals with Water
Reactions of Metals with Oxygen
The pH Scale
Acids and Bases
Neutralisation Reactions
Making Salts from Acids and Bases
Making Salts from Acids and Metals
Making Salts from Acids and Carbonates
Soluble and Insoluble Salts
Required Practical: Making Soluble Salts
Strong Acids vs Weak Acids
Ionisation of Acids in Water
The Role of Hydrogen Ions in Acidity
Electrolysis Basics
Electrolysis of Molten Compounds
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
Products at Electrodes in Electrolysis
Half Equations for Electrolysis
Required Practical: Electrolysis of Solutions
Extraction of Aluminium by Electrolysis
The Role of Cryolite in Aluminium Extraction
Electrolysis and Energy Consumption
Reactions of Acids with Alkalis
Reactions of Acids with Metal Oxides
Testing for Hydrogen Gas
Testing for Carbon Dioxide Gas
The Importance of Electrolysis in Industry
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Reactivity Series Order
Exam Trap: Confusing Oxidation and Reduction
Exam Trap: Misidentifying Electrolysis Products
Exam Trap: Incorrect Neutralisation Equations
Unit 12
Energy Changes
Exothermic Reactions
Endothermic Reactions
Examples of Exothermic Reactions
Examples of Endothermic Reactions
Energy Transfer in Reactions
Reaction Profiles: Exothermic
Reaction Profiles: Endothermic
Interpreting Reaction Profiles
Activation Energy in Reactions
Bond Energy Calculations
Energy Changes in Bond Breaking
Energy Changes in Bond Making
Calculating Overall Energy Change
Energy Level Diagrams
Required Practical: Temperature Changes
Setting Up Temperature Change Experiments
Recording Temperature Changes
Analyzing Temperature Change Data
Common Errors in Practical Work
Using Energy Changes to Predict Reaction Type
Applications of Exothermic Reactions
Applications of Endothermic Reactions
Real-World Examples of Energy Changes
Energy Conservation in Chemical Reactions
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Reaction Profiles
Exam Trap: Confusing Exothermic and Endothermic
Exam Trap: Incorrect Bond Energy Calculations
Exam Trap: Misreading Temperature Data
Preparing for Energy Changes Questions
Unit 13
The Rate and Extent of Chemical Change
Defining Reaction Rate
Collision Theory Basics
Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
Effect of Temperature on Rate
Effect of Concentration on Rate
Effect of Pressure on Rate
Effect of Surface Area on Rate
Role of Catalysts in Reactions
Enzymes as Biological Catalysts
Measuring Reaction Rate Using Gas Volume
Measuring Reaction Rate Using Mass Loss
Measuring Reaction Rate Using Color Change
Graphing Reaction Rates
Calculating Rate from Graphs
Interpreting Reaction Rate Graphs
Required Practical: Effect of Concentration on Rate
Required Practical: Effect of Temperature on Rate
Required Practical: Effect of Surface Area on Rate
Required Practical: Catalysts and Reaction Rate
Dynamic Equilibrium Overview
Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium
Le Chatelier’s Principle
Effect of Concentration on Equilibrium
Effect of Temperature on Equilibrium
Effect of Pressure on Equilibrium
Industrial Applications of Equilibrium
The Haber Process Overview
Conditions for the Haber Process
Yield vs Rate in the Haber Process
Economic Considerations in the Haber Process
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Reaction Rate Graphs
Exam Trap: Confusing Rate and Yield
Exam Trap: Misapplying Le Chatelier’s Principle
Exam Trap: Incorrect Units in Rate Calculations
Calculating Mean Rate of Reaction
Units of Reaction Rate
Interpreting Reaction Rate Data Tables
Using Tangents to Calculate Rate
Understanding Activation Energy
Energy Profiles of Reactions
Effect of Catalysts on Activation Energy
Exam Trap: Misreading Energy Profiles
Graphing Concentration Changes Over Time
Predicting Reaction Outcomes Using Graphs
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Reversible Reaction Arrows
Common Misconceptions About Equilibrium
Unit 14
Organic Chemistry
Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Definition of Hydrocarbons
Alkanes: Structure and Properties
Naming Alkanes
Combustion of Hydrocarbons
Complete Combustion of Alkanes
Incomplete Combustion of Alkanes
Environmental Impact of Combustion
Crude Oil as a Mixture of Hydrocarbons
Formation of Crude Oil
Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil
Uses of Crude Oil Fractions
Definition of Alkenes
Alkenes: Structure and Properties
Naming Alkenes
Testing for Alkenes with Bromine Water
Combustion of Alkenes
Cracking of Hydrocarbons
Thermal Cracking Process
Catalytic Cracking Process
Products of Cracking
Uses of Cracked Products
Introduction to Alcohols
Functional Group in Alcohols
Naming Alcohols
Properties of Alcohols
Combustion of Alcohols
Uses of Alcohols
Oxidation of Alcohols
Production of Ethanol by Fermentation
Production of Ethanol by Hydration of Ethene
Advantages and Disadvantages of Ethanol Production Methods
Introduction to Carboxylic Acids
Functional Group in Carboxylic Acids
Naming Carboxylic Acids
Properties of Carboxylic Acids
Reactions of Carboxylic Acids with Metals
Reactions of Carboxylic Acids with Bases
Reactions of Carboxylic Acids with Carbonates
Esters: Formation and Properties
Uses of Esters
Introduction to Polymers
Addition Polymerisation
Monomers in Addition Polymerisation
Properties of Addition Polymers
Condensation Polymerisation
Monomers in Condensation Polymerisation
Polyesters: Formation and Properties
Natural Polymers: Proteins and DNA
Structure of DNA as a Natural Polymer
Understanding Functional Groups in Organic Compounds
Exam Trap: Common Errors in Naming Organic Compounds
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Combustion Reactions
Exam Trap: Confusing Alkanes and Alkenes
Exam Trap: Cracking vs Combustion
Unit 15
Chemical Analysis
Definition of Pure Substances
Definition of Mixtures
Differences Between Pure Substances and Mixtures
Chromatography Principles
Paper Chromatography Method
Interpreting Chromatograms
Calculating Rf Values
Factors Affecting Chromatography Results
Identifying Substances Using Chromatography
Common Errors in Chromatography
Test for Hydrogen Gas
Test for Oxygen Gas
Test for Carbon Dioxide Gas
Test for Chlorine Gas
Test for Ammonia Gas
Test for Sulfur Dioxide Gas
Flame Tests for Metal Ions
Colours in Flame Tests
Test for Metal Hydroxides Using Sodium Hydroxide
Identifying Metal Ions Using Precipitation Reactions
Test for Carbonates Using Acid
Test for Sulfates Using Barium Chloride
Test for Halides Using Silver Nitrate
Identifying Unknown Substances
Common Errors in Chemical Tests
Required Practical: Chromatography
Required Practical: Identifying Ions
Safety Considerations in Chemical Analysis
Evaluating Results in Chemical Analysis
Applications of Chromatography in Real Life
Applications of Chemical Tests in Real Life
Exam Tips for Chromatography Questions
Exam Tips for Gas Tests Questions
Exam Tips for Ion Identification Questions
Unit 16
Chemistry of the Atmosphere
Composition of the Modern Atmosphere
Proportions of Gases in the Atmosphere
Evolution of the Early Atmosphere
Volcanic Activity and Atmospheric Formation
Formation of Oceans and Carbon Dioxide Reduction
Role of Photosynthesis in Oxygen Increase
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks and Fossil Fuels
Carbon Sequestration in the Early Atmosphere
Current Atmospheric Composition Changes
Human Activities Impacting the Atmosphere
Burning Fossil Fuels and Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Deforestation and Its Atmospheric Effects
Agriculture and Methane Emissions
Greenhouse Gases and Their Effects
The Greenhouse Effect Explained
Global Warming and Climate Change
Consequences of Climate Change
Carbon Footprint Definition
Ways to Reduce Carbon Footprint
Challenges in Reducing Carbon Emissions
Pollutants from Combustion of Fuels
Formation of Carbon Monoxide
Particulates and Their Effects on Health
Sulfur Dioxide and Acid Rain Formation
Nitrogen Oxides and Their Environmental Impact
Air Pollution and Human Health
Environmental Effects of Air Pollution
Examining Data on Atmospheric Changes
Interpreting Graphs of Greenhouse Gas Levels
Evaluating Evidence for Climate Change
Understanding the Role of Peer Review in Climate Science
Required Practical: Investigating Air Pollution
Common Exam Mistakes in Chemistry of the Atmosphere
Linking Human Activities to Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Impact of International Agreements on Climate Change
The Role of Renewable Energy in Reducing Emissions
Natural vs Human-Induced Climate Change
Global Carbon Cycle Overview
The Role of Oceans in Carbon Dioxide Absorption
How Ice Cores Provide Evidence of Atmospheric Changes
The Role of Scientists in Addressing Climate Change
Understanding Feedback Loops in Climate Systems
Role of Public Awareness in Tackling Climate Change
Short-Term vs Long-Term Climate Impacts
Using Data to Predict Future Climate Trends
Evaluating Technological Solutions to Reduce Emissions
Examining Case Studies of Climate Action
Understanding the Impact of Urbanization on Air Quality
Role of Photosynthesis and Respiration in Carbon Balance
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Graphs on Greenhouse Gases
Exam Trap: Confusing Early and Modern Atmospheric Composition
Unit 17
Using Resources
Finite and Renewable Resources
Sustainable Use of Resources
Recycling Materials
Environmental Impact of Resource Extraction
Life Cycle Assessments: Introduction
Life Cycle Assessments: Stages
Evaluating Life Cycle Assessments
Reducing Resource Use Through Design
Water Sources and Availability
Potable Water vs Pure Water
Producing Potable Water
Desalination Techniques
Testing Water Quality
Required Practical: Testing Water Samples
Wastewater Treatment Processes
Stages of Wastewater Treatment
Sewage Treatment and Screening
Aerobic and Anaerobic Digestion in Water Treatment
Sludge Treatment and Biogas Production
Reducing Pollution Through Water Treatment
Metal Extraction Methods
Using Low-Grade Ores: Phytomining
Using Low-Grade Ores: Bioleaching
Advantages and Disadvantages of Phytomining
Advantages and Disadvantages of Bioleaching
Alternative Methods for Metal Extraction
Recycling Metals
Environmental Benefits of Recycling Metals
Energy Savings Through Recycling
Economic Benefits of Recycling
Corrosion and Prevention Methods
The Role of Alloys in Resource Efficiency
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Life Cycle Assessments
Exam Trap: Confusing Potable and Pure Water
Exam Trap: Misunderstanding Recycling Benefits
Exam Trap: Overlooking Environmental Impacts of Extraction
Unit 18
Energy
Energy Stores and Systems
Kinetic Energy Store
Gravitational Potential Energy Store
Elastic Potential Energy Store
Thermal Energy Store
Chemical Energy Store
Energy Transfers by Heating
Energy Transfers by Work Done
Energy Transfers in Mechanical Processes
Energy Transfers in Electrical Appliances
Energy Transfers in Radiators and Heaters
Conservation of Energy Principle
Efficiency of Energy Transfers
Calculating Efficiency
Improving Energy Efficiency
Energy Dissipation and Wasted Energy
Power and Energy Transfer
Calculating Power
Work Done Formula and Examples
Gravitational Potential Energy Formula
Kinetic Energy Formula
Elastic Potential Energy Formula
Specific Heat Capacity Definition
Specific Heat Capacity Formula
Practical: Measuring Specific Heat Capacity
Renewable Energy Resources
Non-Renewable Energy Resources
Fossil Fuels and Their Impact
Nuclear Energy and Its Uses
Solar Energy and Its Applications
Wind Energy and Its Applications
Hydroelectric Energy
Tidal Energy
Wave Energy
Geothermal Energy
Biofuels and Their Uses
Environmental Impact of Energy Resources
Advantages of Renewable Energy
Disadvantages of Renewable Energy
Energy Resource Reliability and Availability
Energy Resource Costs and Economic Factors
Energy Resource Sustainability
Global Energy Demand and Supply
Energy Resource Trends and Future Developments
Energy Transfers in Power Stations
Energy Transfers in Transport Systems
Energy Transfers in Everyday Life
Energy Transfers in Renewable Energy Systems
Energy Transfers in Non-Renewable Energy Systems
Energy Transfers in Homes and Buildings
Reducing Energy Loss in Homes
Calculating Energy Costs
Energy Transfers and Sankey Diagrams
Unit 19
Electricity
Electrical Charge and Current
Electric Current and Charge Flow
Definition of Potential Difference
Definition of Resistance
Ohm's Law
Factors Affecting Resistance
Resistors in Series
Resistors in Parallel
Investigating Resistance in Wires
Investigating Resistance in Series and Parallel
Current-Voltage Characteristics of Resistors
Current-Voltage Characteristics of Filament Lamps
Current-Voltage Characteristics of Diodes
Current-Voltage Characteristics of Thermistors
Current-Voltage Characteristics of LDRs
Energy Transfers in Electrical Circuits
Power in Electrical Circuits
Calculating Power Using P=IV
Calculating Power Using P=I²R
Energy Transfer Using E=Pt
Energy Transfer Using E=QV
Direct Current (DC) vs Alternating Current (AC)
Frequency and Voltage of Mains Electricity
Structure of a Three-Pin Plug
Electrical Safety Features in Plugs
Earth Wire and Its Role
Fuses and Circuit Breakers
The National Grid
Step-Up and Step-Down Transformers
Efficiency in Energy Transmission
Static Electricity and Charge
Electric Fields and Their Properties
Charging by Friction
Dangers of Static Electricity
Uses of Static Electricity
Required Practical: Investigating Resistance
Required Practical: Current-Voltage Characteristics
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Ohm's Law Graphs
Exam Trap: Confusing Series and Parallel Rules
Exam Trap: Misunderstanding AC vs DC
Exam Trap: Misidentifying Plug Components
Exam Trap: Misunderstanding Transformer Use
Exam Trap: Confusing Static and Current Electricity
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Electric Field Diagrams
Unit 20
Particle Model of Matter
States of Matter Overview
Properties of Solids
Properties of Liquids
Properties of Gases
Particle Arrangement in Solids
Particle Arrangement in Liquids
Particle Arrangement in Gases
Changes of State Overview
Melting Process
Freezing Process
Boiling Process
Condensation Process
Sublimation Process
Evaporation Process
Energy Changes During Changes of State
Heating and Cooling Curves
Specific Latent Heat Definition
Specific Latent Heat Formula
Calculating Energy Using Specific Latent Heat
Density Definition
Density Formula
Measuring Density of Regular Objects
Measuring Density of Irregular Objects
Density of Liquids
Density and States of Matter
Internal Energy Definition
Kinetic and Potential Energy in Particles
Factors Affecting Internal Energy
Temperature and Internal Energy
Calculating Energy Using Specific Heat Capacity
Gas Pressure and Particle Motion
Factors Affecting Gas Pressure
Temperature and Gas Pressure Relationship
Volume and Gas Pressure Relationship
Boyle's Law Definition
Boyle's Law Formula
Applying Boyle's Law to Calculations
Examining the Role of Temperature in Boyle's Law
Practical: Measuring Density of Regular Objects
Practical: Measuring Density of Irregular Objects
Practical: Investigating Specific Heat Capacity
Practical: Investigating Changes of State
Practical: Exploring Gas Pressure and Volume
Common Exam Mistakes in Particle Model Questions
Interpreting Graphs of Heating and Cooling Curves
Using Particle Diagrams in Explanations
Exam Technique for Density Calculations
Exam Technique for Specific Heat Capacity Problems
Exam Technique for Specific Latent Heat Problems
Exam Technique for Boyle's Law Questions
Unit 21
Atomic Structure
Atomic Number and Mass Number
Determining the Number of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Electron Arrangement in Shells
Historical Models of the Atom
Development of the Nuclear Model
Rutherford's Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment
Bohr's Model of the Atom
The Discovery of Protons and Neutrons
Isotopes: Definition and Examples
Calculating Relative Atomic Mass
Radioactive Decay: Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation
Properties of Alpha Radiation
Properties of Beta Radiation
Properties of Gamma Radiation
Penetration and Ionising Power of Radiation
Uses of Radiation in Medicine and Industry
Dangers of Radiation
Half-Life: Definition and Concept
Calculating Half-Life from Graphs
Applications of Half-Life
Background Radiation: Sources and Levels
Contamination vs Irradiation
Safety Precautions when Handling Radioactive Materials
Nuclear Equations: Alpha Decay
Nuclear Equations: Beta Decay
Balancing Nuclear Equations
Activity and Count Rate
The Concept of Nuclear Fission
Chain Reactions in Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Fusion: Energy Production in Stars
Comparison of Fission and Fusion
The Role of Neutrons in Nuclear Reactions
The Role of Control Rods in Nuclear Reactors
The Uses of Nuclear Energy
Environmental and Ethical Issues of Nuclear Power
Radiation Dose and Its Measurement
Units of Radiation: Becquerel and Sievert
Factors Affecting Radiation Dose
Radiation and Its Effects on Living Cells
Radioactive Dating
The Discovery of Radioactivity: Henri Becquerel
Marie and Pierre Curie's Contributions to Radioactivity
The Role of Radon Gas in Background Radiation
Nuclear Waste Management
Electromagnetic Radiation from Nuclear Decay
The Role of Nuclear Physics in Modern Technologies
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Atomic Number and Mass Number
Exam Trap: Confusing Contamination and Irradiation
Exam Trap: Miscalculating Half-Life from Graphs
Exam Trap: Incorrectly Balancing Nuclear Equations
Unit 22
Forces
Contact and Non-Contact Forces
Examples of Contact Forces
Examples of Non-Contact Forces
Weight and Gravitational Force
Mass vs Weight
Calculating Weight Using W = mg
Free Body Diagrams
Resultant Force
Newton's First Law of Motion
Newton's Second Law of Motion
Calculating Force Using F = ma
Newton's Third Law of Motion
Balanced and Unbalanced Forces
Types of Frictional Forces
Air Resistance and Drag
Terminal Velocity
Elasticity and Hooke's Law
Calculating Force in Springs: F = ke
Limit of Proportionality
Work Done and Energy Transfer
Calculating Work Done Using W = Fd
Calculating Power Using P = W/t
Kinetic Energy and Motion
Calculating Kinetic Energy Using KE = 1/2 mv²
Gravitational Potential Energy
Calculating GPE Using Ep = mgh
Conservation of Energy in Systems
Momentum and Its Conservation
Calculating Momentum Using p = mv
Collision Scenarios and Momentum Conservation
Stopping Distance of a Vehicle
Factors Affecting Thinking Distance
Factors Affecting Braking Distance
Calculating Stopping Distance
Speed and Velocity Definitions
Calculating Speed Using v = s/t
Distance-Time Graphs
Interpreting Distance-Time Graphs
Velocity-Time Graphs
Interpreting Velocity-Time Graphs
Calculating Acceleration Using a = Δv/t
Uniform Acceleration and Equations of Motion
Moments and Turning Forces
Calculating Moments Using M = Fd
Principle of Moments
Levers and Gears
Pressure in Fluids
Calculating Pressure Using P = F/A
Pressure in Liquids Using P = hρg
Upthrust and Floating Objects
Atmospheric Pressure
Unit 23
Waves
The Nature of Waves
Transverse Waves
Longitudinal Waves
Amplitude of a Wave
Wavelength of a Wave
Frequency of a Wave
Period of a Wave
Wave Speed
The Wave Equation
Using the Wave Equation
Reflection of Waves
Refraction of Waves
Diffraction of Waves
Required Practical: Measuring Wave Speed in Water
Required Practical: Measuring Wave Speed in a Solid
Electromagnetic Waves Overview
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
Uses of Radio Waves
Uses of Microwaves
Uses of Infrared Radiation
Uses of Visible Light
Uses of Ultraviolet Radiation
Uses of X-rays
Uses of Gamma Rays
Dangers of Electromagnetic Radiation
Ionising Radiation and Its Effects
Required Practical: Investigating Reflection
Sound Waves Overview
Properties of Sound Waves
How Sound Travels Through Mediums
Speed of Sound in Different Mediums
Human Hearing Range
Ultrasound and Its Applications
Seismic Waves Overview
Types of Seismic Waves
How Seismic Waves Travel Through the Earth
Examining Seismic Wave Data
Required Practical: Investigating Refraction
Wavefront Diagrams
Ray Diagrams for Reflection
Ray Diagrams for Refraction
Wave Energy Transfer
Wave Interference
Superposition of Waves
Standing Waves
Exam Trap: Distinguishing Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
Exam Trap: Calculating Wave Speed Correctly
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Wave Diagrams
Exam Trap: Units for Frequency and Wavelength
Unit 24
Magnetism and Electromagnetism
Magnetic Poles and Their Properties
Magnetic Field Lines
Magnetic Materials
Permanent Magnets
Induced Magnets
Earth's Magnetic Field
Magnetic Compass and Navigation
Electromagnets and Their Properties
Creating an Electromagnet
Factors Affecting Electromagnet Strength
Applications of Electromagnets
The Motor Effect
Current and Magnetic Fields
Fleming's Left-Hand Rule
Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
Calculating Force on a Conductor
The Magnetic Flux Density
Electric Motors and Their Function
Design of a Simple Electric Motor
Applications of Electric Motors
Electromagnetic Induction
Generating Electric Current with Magnets
Factors Affecting Induced Voltage
The Generator Effect
Alternating Current (AC) Generation
Direct Current (DC) Generation
Transformers and Electromagnetic Induction
Structure and Function of Transformers
Efficiency of Transformers
Transformer Equations
Power Transmission and Transformers
Electromagnetic Applications in Everyday Life
Magnetic Forces in Loudspeakers
Magnetic Forces in Electric Bells
Magnetic Forces in Circuit Breakers
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Fleming's Left-Hand Rule
Exam Trap: Confusing AC and DC Generation
Exam Trap: Incorrect Use of Transformer Equations
Required Practical: Investigating Magnetic Fields
Required Practical: Investigating Electromagnets
Required Practical: Investigating the Motor Effect
Unit 25
Archive
How scientific ideas and methods change over time
Using decimal form in calculations
Required practical: Microscopy (plant and animal cells, scale bars)
Cells as the basic unit of life
Digestive system organs and their roles
Communicable vs non-communicable disease
Photosynthesis word equation and symbol equation
Homeostasis: keeping conditions stable
DNA, genes, and chromosomes
Ecosystems and habitats: key definitions
Atoms, elements, and compounds
Why atoms bond: gaining stable electron arrangements
Writing chemical formulae (basic)
The reactivity series and what it predicts
Exothermic vs endothermic reactions
What “rate of reaction” means
Crude oil as a mixture of hydrocarbons
Pure substances, mixtures, and formulations
Earth’s early atmosphere (basic model)
Finite vs renewable resources
Energy stores (kinetic, thermal, chemical, etc.)
Electric charge and current
Solids, liquids, gases: particle arrangement and motion
Structure of the atom (nucleus and electrons)
Scalars vs vectors (force, speed, velocity)
Transverse vs longitudinal waves
Permanent magnets and magnetic fields
Why new evidence can change models and theories
Standard form (including converting and calculating)
Required practical: Osmosis in plant tissue (mass change vs concentration)
Eukaryotic vs prokaryotic cells
Digestive enzymes: amylase, protease, lipase
Pathogens: bacteria, viruses, fungi, protists
Rate of photosynthesis: limiting factors (light, CO₂, temperature)
Control systems: receptors, coordination centres, effectors
Base pairs and the genetic code (overview)
Biotic vs abiotic factors affecting organisms
Mixtures vs pure substances
Ionic bonding: ions and electrostatic attraction
Balancing symbol equations
Displacement reactions (metals)
Energy level diagrams (reaction profiles)
Collision theory basics
Fractional distillation and boiling range
Chromatography: setting up and interpreting results
How the atmosphere changed over time
Sustainable development (meaning and examples)
Energy transfers: mechanical, electrical, heating, radiation
Potential difference and what it represents
Density as mass/volume (concept and units)
Isotopes (link to nuclear stability idea)
Contact vs non-contact forces
Wave features: amplitude, wavelength, frequency, period
Drawing and interpreting magnetic field lines
Using data to support or challenge a claim
Ratios, fractions, and percentages in science contexts
Required practical: Food tests (Benedict’s, iodine, Biuret, lipids)
Animal vs plant cells: key differences
Enzyme action and “active site” idea
Common disease examples and how they spread
Interpreting photosynthesis investigations and graphs
The nervous system: CNS and peripheral nerves
Mitosis vs meiosis (purpose and outcomes)
Food chains and trophic levels
The structure of the atom (protons, neutrons, electrons)
Covalent bonding: sharing electrons
Conservation of mass (and gases leaving the system)
Oxidation and reduction (electron transfer idea)
Activation energy and why it matters
Effect of temperature on rate
Properties of fractions (viscosity, volatility, flammability)
Rf values: calculation and comparison
Greenhouse gases and the greenhouse effect
Potable water vs pure water
Conservation of energy in systems
Resistance and factors that affect it
Density calculations for solids and liquids
Types of nuclear radiation: alpha, beta, gamma
Resultant force and motion changes
Wave speed equation and rearranging it
Magnetic vs non-magnetic materials
Scientific models: what they are and why we use them
Estimating answers to check for mistakes
Required practical: Enzymes (effect of pH on amylase using sampling)
Subcellular structures and their functions
Effects of temperature, pH, and concentration on enzymes
Human defence barriers (skin, mucus, cilia, stomach acid)
How plants use glucose (storage and building materials)
Reflex arcs (stimulus → response pathway)
Sexual vs asexual reproduction (pros/cons)
Food webs and interdependence
Atomic number and mass number
Metallic bonding: “sea of electrons” model
Relative atomic mass and Mr calculations
Acids and alkalis: core properties
Catalysts and how they affect activation energy
Effect of concentration/pressure on rate
Alkanes vs alkenes (structures and general formulae)
Gas tests (H₂, O₂, CO₂, Cl₂)
Evidence for climate change (data patterns)
Water treatment: filtration and sterilisation
Useful vs wasted energy (and Sankey diagrams)
Series circuits: current, p.d., resistance rules
Measuring volume: regular vs irregular objects
Properties of radiation (penetration, ionisation)
Newton’s first law (inertia)
Reflection and refraction (what changes and what doesn’t)
Electromagnets: solenoids and core materials
Drawing and interpreting scientific diagrams and models
Significant figures (rounding and “too precise” answers)
Required practical: Photosynthesis (light intensity vs rate using pondweed)
Specialised cells: structure linked to function
Testing for biological molecules (food tests recap + interpretation)
White blood cells: phagocytosis and immune response
Respiration as a reaction that releases energy
Synapses (signal transmission idea)
Genetic inheritance: alleles, genotype, phenotype
Pyramids of biomass (what they show)
Isotopes and why they exist
Dot-and-cross diagrams (ionic and covalent)
The mole concept (linking particles to amount)
pH scale and indicators
Bond breaking and bond making (energy ideas)
Effect of surface area on rate
Cracking: why it’s done and what it produces
Flame tests for metal ions (overview)
Human activities increasing greenhouse gases
Distillation and desalination (pros/cons)
Work done and energy transfer by forces
Parallel circuits: current, p.d., resistance rules
Density practical: displacement method and accuracy
Nuclear equations (particle and mass/atomic number balance)
Newton’s second law (F = ma)
Diffraction and when it’s most noticeable
Factors affecting electromagnet strength
Using models to make predictions (and spotting limitations)
Finding means, mode, and median in datasets
Required practical: Reaction time (plan and carry out a human investigation)
Levels of organisation: cells to tissues to organs
The circulatory system: heart, vessels, double circulation
Antibodies and antigens (specificity)
Aerobic respiration: equation and energy release
The endocrine system: hormones and target organs
Dominant vs recessive alleles
Biomass transfer and energy loss between trophic levels
Relative atomic mass (idea and interpretation)
Simple molecular substances: melting/boiling and conductivity
Moles from mass and Mr
Neutralisation: making salts and water
Using bond energies to estimate energy change
Catalysts and reaction rate
Polymerisation (addition polymers)
Precipitation tests for common ions (overview)
Atmospheric pollutants: NOx, SO₂, particulates, CO
Life cycle assessment (LCA) and comparing products
Gravitational potential energy calculations
Using circuit symbols correctly
Internal energy: kinetic + potential energy of particles
Half-life and radioactive decay curves
Newton’s third law pairs (action-reaction)
Sound waves: frequency, pitch, amplitude, loudness
The motor effect (force on a current in a magnetic field)
Ethical issues in science: how to argue a viewpoint
Frequency tables, bar charts, and histograms
Required practical: Fieldwork sampling (population size + distribution factor)
Using a light microscope safely and effectively
The pathway of blood through the heart
Vaccination: how it works and herd immunity
Anaerobic respiration in muscles: equation and consequences
Adrenaline: fight-or-flight effects
Punnett squares for monohybrid crosses
Decomposition: role of microorganisms and decay conditions
Electron shells and electronic structure (simple model)
Giant ionic lattices: properties and why they occur
Mass from moles and Mr
Making soluble salts (method + purity)
Measuring temperature change in reactions safely
Measuring rate: gas volume method
Ethanol: production by fermentation
Instrumental methods: what they can show (overview)
Acid rain: causes and impacts
Reducing, reusing, recycling (environmental impact)
Kinetic energy calculations
Measuring current (ammeter) and p.d. (voltmeter)
Heating curves and changes of state
Background radiation sources and risk
Acceleration calculations and rearranging F = ma
The electromagnetic spectrum (order and properties)
Fleming’s left-hand rule (using it correctly)
Science in society: weighing up benefits, risks, and impacts
Sampling in biology data (bias, sample size, random sampling)
Required practical: Making a soluble salt (from insoluble base/carbonate)
Magnification calculations (image size vs actual size)
Blood components and their functions
Antibiotics: treating bacteria (not viruses)
Oxygen debt and recovery after exercise
Blood glucose control: insulin and glucagon
Sex determination (XX/XY)
The carbon cycle (processes and stores)
Periodic table layout: groups and periods
Giant covalent structures: diamond and graphite
Concentration in g/dm³ and mol/dm³ (core methods)
Making insoluble salts (precipitation)
Evaluating temperature-change practicals (errors and improvements)
Measuring rate: colour/turbidity method
Ethanol: production by hydration (overview)
Analysing and purifying water samples (pH, solids, distillation)
Reducing pollution (catalytic converters and regulations)
Metal extraction vs recycling (energy and pollution trade-offs)
Elastic potential energy in springs (overview)
I–V characteristics: resistor, filament lamp, diode
Specific latent heat (idea and calculations)
Uses of radiation (medicine, tracers, sterilisation)
Distance–time graphs (speed from gradient)
Uses of EM waves (one key use per band)
Electromagnetic induction (changing magnetic fields)
Risk in science: hazard vs risk, perceived vs measured risk
Simple probability in biology contexts
Required practical: Electrolysis of aqueous solutions (inert electrodes)
Scale bars and estimating cell size
Coronary heart disease: causes and risk factors
Antibiotic resistance and why it spreads
Metabolism: energy use in the body (overview)
Diabetes: Type 1 vs Type 2 (causes and treatments)
Inherited disorders (example-based understanding)
The water cycle (processes and stores)
Metals vs non-metals (properties overview)
Graphene and fullerenes (properties and uses)
Using balanced equations for reacting mass calculations
Electrolysis basics: ions and electrodes
Drawing and interpreting rate graphs
Combustion of hydrocarbons (complete vs incomplete)
Corrosion and preventing rusting (methods and reasoning)
Power as “rate of energy transfer”
Calculating resistance from graphs
Gas pressure in terms of particle collisions
Irradiation vs contamination (crucial distinction)
Velocity–time graphs (acceleration from gradient)
Dangers of EM waves (ionising vs non-ionising)
Generators: how they produce electricity
Peer review: why it matters and what it does
Scatter graphs and correlation (biology/physics)
Required practical: Temperature changes in reactions (exothermic/endothermic)
Diffusion: what it is and what affects rate
Non-communicable diseases: risk factors and data links
Drug discovery: testing, trials, and peer review
Comparing photosynthesis and respiration
Thermoregulation: sweating, shivering, vasodilation/constriction
Variation: genetic vs environmental causes
Biodiversity: what it means and why it matters
Group 1 alkali metals: key trends and reactions
Polymers: structure and basic properties
Percentage yield (meaning and calculation)
Electrolysis of molten ionic compounds
Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium
Pollutants from combustion and how to reduce them
Alloys: why we make them and examples
Efficiency calculations and improving efficiency
Power in circuits (P = IV and related equations)
Temperature, pressure, and volume relationships (qualitative + simple maths)
Nuclear fission and chain reactions (overview)
Stopping distance: thinking, braking, and key factors
Ripple tank practical: measuring wavelength, frequency, speed
Transformers: step-up vs step-down (basic idea)
Science in the media: spotting oversimplification and bias
Order of magnitude calculations
Required practical: Rates (gas volume and colour/turbidity methods)
Osmosis: movement of water across membranes
Cancer: benign vs malignant, how tumours form
Monoclonal antibodies: what they are used for
The kidneys: filtration, reabsorption, and urine formation
Mutation: what it is and potential effects
Human impacts: land use change and habitat loss
Group 7 halogens: key trends and displacement
Nanoparticles: what they are and why properties change
Atom economy (meaning and calculation)
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions (products and rules)
Changing conditions and equilibrium position
Using materials for a purpose (properties-driven choice)
Heating and insulation in buildings (conduction, convection, radiation)
Energy transferred in electrical devices
The particle model’s strengths and limits
Nuclear power: benefits, risks, waste
Momentum as mass × velocity (concept and use)
Infrared absorption/radiation practical: linking surface to energy transfer
The National Grid (why high voltage is used)
Writing testable hypotheses from observations
Rearranging equations (changing the subject)
Required practical: Chromatography (separation + Rf values)
Active transport: moving substances against a gradient
Plant tissues (xylem and phloem) and transport
Plant diseases: pathogens and plant defences
Kidney failure and dialysis (basic comparison)
Evolution by natural selection (step-by-step)
Pollution: air, water, and land (examples and effects)
Group 0 noble gases: why they’re unreactive
States of matter and particle arrangement
Limiting reactants (idea and simple identification)
Extracting metals (basic reduction idea)
Le Chatelier’s principle (applied examples)
Energy resources: renewable vs non-renewable
Domestic electricity: mains, plugs, fuses, circuit breakers
Hooke’s law and force–extension graphs
Identifying independent, dependent, and control variables
Substituting values with correct units (chemistry/physics)
Required practical: Water analysis and purification (pH, solids, distillation)
Mitosis and the cell cycle (why it matters)
Transpiration: what drives it and what affects it
Physical plant defences and chemical plant defences
Reproduction: menstrual cycle and hormone roles
Fossils as evidence for evolution (and limitations)
Global warming and climate change (basic mechanisms)
Transition metals: typical properties and uses
Changes of state and energy transfer (particle model)
Electricity generation methods and trade-offs
Safety: earthing, double insulation, and electric shock
Spring practical: identifying the limit of proportionality
Planning a valid method (controls, repeats, range, resolution)
Solving simple equations (biology/physics)
Required practical: Specific heat capacity (link energy change to temperature rise)
Stem cells: what they are and potential uses (with ethics)
Leaf adaptations for gas exchange and photosynthesis
Contraception: barrier vs hormonal (benefits and drawbacks)
Speciation and extinction (overview)
Maintaining biodiversity: conservation strategies
Specific heat capacity practical: method and calculations
Resistance practical: wire length and series/parallel resistors
Newton’s second law practical: force/mass/acceleration relationships
Accuracy, precision, repeatability, reproducibility
Converting between tables, graphs, and sentences
Required practical: Resistance (wire length; series vs parallel resistors)
Root hair cells and water/mineral uptake
Plant hormones: tropisms and simple plant responses
Selective breeding: method, benefits, drawbacks
Measuring biodiversity and populations (sampling methods)
I–V practical: plotting and interpreting characteristic curves
Pressure in fluids (concept and everyday examples)
Random vs systematic error (and how to reduce them)
Understanding y = mx + c in practical graphs
Required practical: I–V characteristics (lamp, diode, resistor)
Genetic engineering: what it is used for (with ethics)
Evaluating ecological data and drawing conclusions
Sampling: when it’s needed and how to make it representative
Gradient and intercept from linear graphs
Required practical: Density (regular/irregular solids + liquids)
Recording data: tables, units, headings, significant figures
Tangents to curves to find rate (chemistry/physics)
Required practical: Force and extension (spring)
Graph choice: bar charts vs line graphs vs scatter graphs
Area under a graph by counting squares (physics)
Required practical: Newton’s second law (force, mass, acceleration)
Drawing best-fit lines and curves (and using them to conclude)
Angles in degrees (physics)
Required practical: Waves (measuring wavelength, frequency, speed)
Making conclusions that link directly to evidence
Visualising 2D/3D shapes in science diagrams
Required practical: Infrared radiation (absorption/radiation vs surface)
Evaluating methods: limitations, improvements, next steps
Area, surface area, and volume calculations
Communicating findings clearly (methods, results, conclusions)