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Turning questions into testable hypothesesChoosing independent, dependent and control variablesWriting a clear method with repeat measurementsRisk assessment: hazards, risks and control measuresPrecision, accuracy and improving reliabilityRepeatability, reproducibility and spotting anomaliesPresenting results in tables with units and headingsPlotting graphs with sensible scales and best-fit linesInterpreting trends, patterns and correlationsCalculating mean, range and percentage changeRate calculations (including practical contexts)Using standard form in biology calculationsUsing the microscope: scale bars and magnification basicsEvaluating method limitations and suggesting improvements
What all cells have in commonAnimal cells: key sub-cellular structures and functionsPlant cells: chloroplasts, vacuole and cellulose cell wallBacterial cells: features and plasmidsEukaryotic vs prokaryotic cellsEstimating and comparing sizes of sub-cellular structuresCell specialisation in animals: sperm, neurones and muscle cellsCell specialisation in plants: root hair cells, xylem and phloemCell differentiation: what it means and why it mattersDifferentiation in animals vs plantsStem cells: what they are and why they’re usefulStem cells in medicine: benefits and risks (including ethics)Microscopy: light vs electron microscopesMagnification calculations (image size, real size, magnification)Mitosis: why cells divideThe cell cycle and stages of mitosis (overview)Diffusion: movement down a concentration gradientDiffusion rate: surface area, temperature and concentration differenceOsmosis: movement of water across a partially permeable membraneActive transport: moving substances against a concentration gradientExchange surfaces: what makes diffusion efficientUsing SA:V ratio to explain diffusion limits in organisms
Levels of organisation: cells to tissues to organs to organ systemsThe digestive system: organs and overall functionDigestive enzymes: lock-and-key modelAmylase: where it’s made and what it doesProteases: where they’re made and what they doLipases: where they’re made and what they doBile: neutralising acid and emulsifying fatsAbsorption in the small intestineVilli adaptations for absorptionRequired practical: food tests for sugars, starch, protein and lipids (AQA)Required practical: effect of pH on amylase (continuous sampling) (AQA)The circulatory system: what the blood transportsThe heart: structure (atria, ventricles, valves) and functionBlood vessels: arteries, veins and capillariesBlood components: plasma, red cells, white cells and plateletsCoronary heart disease: causes and risk factorsTreating CHD: stents and statins (and lifestyle)The respiratory system: ventilation basicsGas exchange in alveoli: adaptations and diffusionNon-communicable disease: examples and risk factorsCancer: benign vs malignant tumoursPlant tissues: epidermis, palisade and spongy mesophyllXylem: structure and functionPhloem: structure and functionTranspiration: how water moves through a plantTranspiration rate: light, temperature, humidity and windTranslocation: moving sugars in the phloem
Pathogens and the idea of infectious diseaseHow communicable diseases spread (air, water, contact, vectors)Reducing disease spread: hygiene and isolation strategiesViral diseases: measles, HIV and tobacco mosaic virusBacterial diseases: salmonella and gonorrhoeaFungal diseases: rose black spot (plants)Protist diseases: malaria and mosquito vectorsNon-specific human defences: skin barrierNon-specific human defences: nose hairs and mucusNon-specific human defences: trachea/bronchi cilia and mucusNon-specific human defences: stomach acidWhite blood cells: phagocytosisWhite blood cells: antibody productionWhite blood cells: antitoxin productionVaccination: how it prevents diseaseHerd immunity: why vaccinating many people reduces spreadAntibiotics: what they treat (and what they don’t)Painkillers: symptom relief vs killing pathogensAntibiotic resistance: how resistant strains increaseDrug discovery: plant/microbe origins and modern synthesisPreclinical testing: cells, tissues and live animalsClinical trials: safety, efficacy and dosagePlacebos and double-blind trialsRequired practical: zones of inhibition on agar (AQA)Monoclonal antibodies: how they are made (HT)Monoclonal antibodies: diagnosis uses (HT)Monoclonal antibodies: treatment uses (HT)Monoclonal antibodies: side effects and ethical issues (HT)Detecting plant disease by symptoms (HT)Identifying plant disease: lab tests and reference sources (HT)Plant physical defences (cell walls, cuticle, bark)Plant chemical defences (antibacterial chemicals and poisons)
Photosynthesis word equation and balanced symbol equationPhotosynthesis as an endothermic reactionChloroplasts and chlorophyll: what they doLimiting factors: light intensityLimiting factors: carbon dioxide concentrationLimiting factors: temperatureLimiting factors: chlorophyll amountInterpreting graphs with one limiting factorInterpreting graphs with 2–3 limiting factors (HT)Using the inverse square law for light intensity (HT)Greenhouses: balancing cost with limiting factors (HT)Required practical: light intensity on photosynthesis (pondweed) (AQA)Uses of glucose: respirationUses of glucose: starch storageUses of glucose: fats/oils storageUses of glucose: cellulose for cell wallsUses of glucose: making amino acids with nitrate ionsRespiration as an exothermic reaction in cellsAerobic respiration equation and uses of energyAnaerobic respiration in muscles: products and energy yieldAnaerobic respiration in plants/yeast: fermentation and usesExercise response: heart rate, breathing rate, breath volumeLactic acid build-up and muscle fatigueOxygen debt: what it means and how it’s repaidMetabolism: definition and why it mattersBuilding carbohydrates, lipids and proteins from smaller moleculesMaking urea from excess proteins (link to excretion)
Homeostasis: keeping internal conditions stableControl systems: receptors, coordination centres and effectorsNegative feedback: how homeostasis restores optimum conditionsThe nervous system: CNS and neuronesReflex actions: why they are rapid and protectiveReflex arc: sensory neurone, synapse, relay neurone, motor neuroneSynapses: why transmission is one-wayMeasuring reaction time using data and graphsRequired practical: effect of a factor on human reaction time (AQA)The brain regions: cerebral cortex, cerebellum, medulla (biology only)Brain investigation and treatment: difficulties and ethics (HT, biology only)The eye structures: retina, optic nerve, sclera, cornea, irisAccommodation: focusing on near vs distant objectsPupils and light intensity: reflex controlHormones vs nerves: speed, duration and targetingEndocrine glands: roles (pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, gonads)Blood glucose control: insulin and glucagonDiabetes: Type 1 basics and managementType 2 diabetes: risk factors and treatment (HT)Thermoregulation: core temperature and enzymesSkin responses: sweating, vasodilation and vasoconstrictionShivering and metabolic heat productionKidney structure: role of nephrons (overview)Filtering blood: urea, water and ionsSelective reabsorption in the kidney tubulesWater balance and ADHKidney failure: dialysis vs transplant (pros and cons)Reproduction hormones: FSH, LH, oestrogen, progesterone (overview)The menstrual cycle: hormone changes across the cycleContraception: barrier methods and condomsContraception: hormonal methods (pill, implant) and effectsContraception: IUDs and other non-barrier methodsFertility treatment: IVF steps (and success factors)Ethics of fertility treatment and embryo screening (HT)Plant hormones: tropisms (phototropism and gravitropism)Auxin and growth responses in shoots and rootsUses of auxins: weedkillers and rooting powderGibberellins: seed germination and growth effectsEthene: fruit ripening and commercial controlRequired practical: light/gravity on seedling growth (AQA, biology only)
Sexual reproduction: what it involves (animals and flowering plants)Asexual reproduction: what it is and where it happensMeiosis: halving chromosome number in gametesFertilisation: restoring the full chromosome numberMitosis vs meiosis: identical vs non-identical cellsAdvantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction (biology only)Advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction (biology only)DNA, genes, alleles and chromosomes: the basicsThe genome and phenotype: environment interaction (AQA)Genetic inheritance: genotype vs phenotypeMonohybrid crosses using Punnett squaresDominant and recessive alleles in inheritance problemsInherited disorders: polydactyly and cystic fibrosisEmbryo screening: economic, social and ethical issuesSex determination: XX and XY chromosomesGenetic cross for sex inheritanceVariation: genetic vs environmental causesMutations: what they are and their effectsEvolution by natural selection: steps in the processSelective breeding: method and impactsGenetic engineering: transferring genes for desired traitsGM crops: potential benefits and concernsDarwin and Wallace: developing natural selection (biology only)Speciation: how new species form (biology only)Mendel: why his work mattered (and why delayed recognition)Evidence for evolution: fossils and resistant bacteriaFossil formation: why fossils form in some conditionsExtinction: causes and examples of factorsResistant bacteria (including MRSA): selection and spreadClassification: Linnaean hierarchy (kingdom to species)Binomial naming: genus and speciesUsing evidence to place organisms into groups
Levels of organisation in ecosystems: organism to ecosystem (AQA)Interdependence: why species rely on each otherCompetition: resources organisms compete forAbiotic factors: light, temperature, moisture, soil pH, etc.Biotic factors: predators, pathogens, food availability, competitionAdaptations: structural, behavioural and functionalCommunities and stable ecosystemsFood chains: producers and consumersFood webs: interlinked feeding relationshipsTrophic levels: numbering and definitions (biology only)Pyramids of biomass: constructing from data (biology only)Transfer of biomass: ~10% to next trophic level (biology only)Biomass losses: respiration, movement, waste and uneaten materialHow materials are cycled: abiotic and biotic componentsThe water cycle: processes and importanceThe carbon cycle: photosynthesis, respiration, combustion, decompositionDecomposition: microorganisms and decay conditions (biology only)Factors affecting decay rate: temperature, water and oxygen (biology only)Anaerobic decay: biogas and methane (links to waste)Required practical: temperature and milk decay rate using pH (AQA)Impact of environmental change on species distribution (HT, biology only)Biodiversity: what it is and why it supports stabilityMeasuring biodiversity: counting species in an area (overview)Pollution types: water, air and landWaste management: reducing, reusing and recycling strategiesLand use: building, quarrying, farming and landfill impactsPeat bogs: habitat loss and carbon dioxide releaseDeforestation: causes and environmental implicationsGlobal warming: greenhouse gases and biological consequencesMaintaining biodiversity: conservation programmes and actionsRequired practical: sampling and estimating population size (AQA)Food security: what it means (biology only)Factors threatening food security (biology only)Farming techniques to improve efficiency (biology only)Ethical objections to intensive farming (biology only)Sustainable fisheries: quotas and net sizes (biology only)Biotechnology in food: culturing microorganisms (biology only)Biotechnology and GM solutions for growing demand (biology only)
Required practical 1: microscopy drawings of plant and animal cells (AQA)Required practical 2: antibiotics/antiseptics and zones of inhibition (AQA, biology only)Required practical 3: osmosis in plant tissue using sugar/salt solutions (AQA)Required practical 4: food tests for carbohydrates, lipids and proteins (AQA)Required practical 5: effect of pH on amylase (AQA)Required practical 6: light intensity and photosynthesis rate (pondweed) (AQA)Required practical 7: factor affecting human reaction time (AQA)Required practical 8: light/gravity and seedling growth (AQA, biology only)Required practical 9: field sampling to estimate population and distribution (AQA)Required practical 10: temperature and milk decay rate via pH (AQA, biology only)
