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Criminology
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What “criminal”, “deviant” and “antisocial” mean in criminologyWhite collar crime: organised, corporate and professionalMoral crime and “moral offences”State crime: human rights abusesTechnological crime: e-crime and cyber-enabled offencesIndividual crime: hate crimeIndividual crime: honour crimeIndividual crime: domestic abuseAnalysing crime by offence type, victim type and offender typeAnalysing crime by level of public awarenessWhy crimes go unreported: fear and intimidationWhy crimes go unreported: shame and stigmaWhy crimes go unreported: disinterest and “not affected”Why crimes go unreported: lack of knowledge and complexityWhy crimes go unreported: lack of media interest and low public concernCulture-bound crime and barriers to reportingUnreported crime case focus: domestic abuseUnreported crime case focus: sexual offences (including rape)Unreported crime case focus: vandalism and “minor” property crimeUnreported crime case focus: perceived victimless crimesConsequences of unreported crime: the ripple effectConsequences of unreported crime: unrecorded crime and distorted prioritiesConsequences of unreported crime: decriminalisation and legal changeConsequences of unreported crime: procedural change and police prioritisationNews and newspaper representations of crimeTV and documentary representations of crimeFilm and drama representations of crimeSocial media representations of crime: blogs and networkingGaming and music representations of crimeMoral panic: what it is and how it formsStereotyping offenders and “ideal victims”Media impact on perceptions of crime trendsMedia impact on fear of crime and attitudes to punishmentComparing crime sources: Home Office stats vs CSEWReliability, validity and ethics in crime data collectionStrengths and limitations of official statisticsStrengths and limitations of victimisation surveysWhat a “campaign for change” is and what it tries to achieveCampaign aims: changing policy, law, funding and agency prioritiesCampaign aims: changing awareness and public attitudesComparing campaigns: purpose, audience, methods and outcomesMeasuring campaign effectiveness against objectivesMedia types in campaigns: blogs, viral messaging and social networkingMedia types in campaigns: advertising, radio and televisionMedia types in campaigns: film, documentary and printEvaluating campaign media: reach, persuasion and audience targetingChoosing a crime-related campaign focus for planningSetting aims and objectives for a campaign planDefining and justifying the target audienceSelecting methods, media and materials for the campaignBuilding a campaign budget and financial justificationCreating timescales, resource plans and rolesDesigning campaign materials: structure and sequencing informationDesigning campaign materials: images and attention-grabbing featuresDesigning campaign materials: persuasive language and calls to actionDesigning campaign materials: align with aims and audienceDesigning materials: leaflet conventionsDesigning materials: poster and advert conventionsDesigning materials: blog and social page conventionsWriting a justification: presenting a clear case for actionUsing evidence to support a campaign argumentReferencing credible sources for campaign work (controlled assessment focus)
Crime and deviance: similarities and differencesSocial construction of criminality: how laws vary by cultureSocial construction of criminality: how laws change over timeSocial construction of criminality: context and circumstance in applying lawSocial construction of criminality: why groups experience law differentlyHow “unreported crime” links to social constructions of crimeBiological explanations: what “genetic theories” claimJacobs XYY study: claims and evaluation pointsTwin and adoption studies: what they test and what they suggestPhysiological explanations: Lombroso and atavismPhysiological explanations: Sheldon and body typesIndividualistic explanations: learning theories overviewSocial learning theory: Bandura and modelling crimeIndividualistic explanations: psychodynamic overviewPsychodynamic explanation: Freud (id/ego/superego) and offendingIndividualistic explanations: psychological traits overviewPersonality explanation: Eysenck and criminal personalitySociological explanations: social structure overviewMarxism: crime, power and inequalityFunctionalism: crime as normal, functions and strain/anomie linksSociological explanations: interactionism overviewLabelling: primary/secondary deviance and self-fulfilling prophecySociological explanations: realism overviewLeft realism: relative deprivation, marginalisation and subculturesRight realism: individual responsibility, control and opportunityApplying theories to crime types: person/property crimeApplying theories to white collar and corporate crimeApplying theories to state and moral crimesApplying theories to individual behaviour in case scenariosEvaluating theories: strengths, weaknesses and evidence baseComparing theories: which best explains which crimes (and why)How theories influence policy: informal vs formal policy makingCrime control policies and the theories behind themState punishment policies and the theories behind themPolicy examples through theory: zero tolerance, CCTV and penal populismPolicy examples through theory: restorative justice and multi-agency approachesSocial change and policy: values, norms, mores and shifting attitudesSocial change and policy: demographic change and social structureSocial change and policy: cultural change and public perception of crimeCampaigns and policy making: newspaper campaignsCampaigns and policy making: individual campaignsCampaigns and policy making: pressure group campaigns
What happens after a crime is detected: the investigation pathwayCrime scene investigators: role and typical tasksForensic specialists and forensic scientists: roles and differencesPolice officers and detectives: investigative decision-makingThe CPS in investigations: working relationship with policePathologists and cause-of-death evidenceOther agencies: SOCA and HMRC (why they get involved)Evaluating effectiveness of roles: cost limitationsEvaluating effectiveness of roles: expertise limitationsEvaluating effectiveness of roles: availability limitationsForensic techniques: fingerprints, DNA and trace evidence basicsSurveillance techniques: physical and digital surveillance overviewProfiling techniques: what profiling can and can’t doIntelligence databases: National DNA Database and investigative valueInterviewing eyewitnesses: reliability and procedure basicsInterviewing experts: purpose and limitsMatching techniques: crime scene vs lab vs station vs “street”Matching techniques to crime types: violent crime investigationsMatching techniques to crime types: e-crime investigationsMatching techniques to crime types: property crime investigationsPhysical evidence vs testimonial evidence: key differencesEvidence processing: collection and contamination risksEvidence processing: transfer and continuityEvidence processing: storage and chain of custodyEvidence processing: analysis and interpretationWho processes evidence: roles and accountabilityEvidence in case studies: how processing affected outcomes (Barry George)Evidence in case studies: how processing affected outcomes (Sally Clarke)Evidence in case studies: how processing affected outcomes (Angela Cannings)Evidence in case studies: how processing affected outcomes (Amanda Knox)Rights of suspects during investigation and interviewRights of victims during investigation and trial preparationRights of witnesses and witness protection considerationsRights through to appeal: what “safeguards” look likeCPS legal framework: charging role and why it mattersProsecution of Offences Act and CPS responsibilitiesFull Code Test: evidential stageFull Code Test: public interest stagePre-trial processes: case building and case managementBail decisions: purposes and risksCourt personnel roles: judge, prosecution, defence and legal teamsPlea bargaining: what it is and impacts on justiceCourts: magistrates’ court vs Crown Court pathwaysAppeals: why appeals happen and what they challengeRules of evidence: relevance and admissibilityDisclosure of evidence: purpose and fairnessHearsay rule and key exceptionsEvidence rules shaped by legislation and case lawInfluences on outcomes: strength and type of evidenceInfluences on outcomes: media pressure and publicityInfluences on outcomes: witness credibility and errorsInfluences on outcomes: expert evidence and expert biasInfluences on outcomes: politics and policy climateInfluences on outcomes: judiciary and judicial directionsInfluences on outcomes: barristers and legal strategyLaypeople in criminal cases: the role of juriesLaypeople in criminal cases: the role of magistratesStrengths and weaknesses of jury decision-makingStrengths and weaknesses of lay magistratesReviewing information sources: what “validity” means in practiceTesting for bias, opinion and context in case materialsTesting for currency and accuracy in case materialsUsing evidence, transcripts, judgements and Law Reports as sourcesDrawing conclusions: what makes a verdict “safe”Drawing conclusions: what makes a verdict “just”Miscarriages of justice: warning signs from evidenceJudging sentencing as “just” using case info (controlled assessment focus)
The criminal justice system in England and Wales: what it is forLaw making via government processes: how legislation is createdLaw making via judicial processes: judges and case lawLinking law making to campaign pressure and public opinionCriminal justice system agencies: police functions in the wider systemCriminal justice system agencies: courts and decision-making rolesCriminal justice system agencies: formal punishment and enforcementRelationships between agencies: cooperation and tension pointsModels of criminal justice: due process modelModels of criminal justice: crime control modelComparing due process and crime control in real scenariosSocial control: internal forms (rational ideology)Social control: internal forms (tradition)Social control: internalisation of rules and moralitySocial control: external forms (coercion)Social control: external forms (fear of punishment)Control theory: why people obey the lawAims of punishment: retributionAims of punishment: rehabilitationAims of punishment: deterrence (reducing reoffending)Aims of punishment: deterrence (deterring others)Aims of punishment: public protectionAims of punishment: reparationForms of punishment: imprisonmentForms of punishment: community sentencesForms of punishment: financial penaltiesForms of punishment: dischargeAssessing punishment forms against aims: what “effective” looks likeAgencies in social control: police (aims, funding, philosophy, practices)Agencies in social control: CPS (aims, funding, philosophy, practices)Agencies in social control: judiciary (aims, funding, philosophy, practices)Agencies in social control: prisons (aims, funding, philosophy, practices)Agencies in social control: probation (aims, funding, philosophy, practices)Charities as social control agencies: roles and reachPressure groups as social control agencies: roles and influenceAgency contributions: environmental approaches (design, gated lanes)Agency contributions: behavioural approaches (ASBOs, token economy)Agency contributions: institutional and disciplinary approachesAgency contributions: rule making and staged/phased systemsGaps in state provision and how non-state agencies respondLimits on social control: repeat offenders and recidivismLimits on social control: civil liberties and legal barriersLimits on social control: resources, support and financeLimits on social control: local vs national policy constraintsLimits on social control: environmental constraints on preventionLimits on social control: “moral imperative” offendingEvaluating agency effectiveness using evidence and sourcesEvaluating sources about agencies: bias, opinion and circumstancesEvaluating sources about agencies: currency and accuracy
