By Revision Genie
Atomic Structure
Unit 1
Structure of the Atom
Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Relative Charges and Masses of Subatomic Particles
Atomic Number and Mass Number
Distribution of Mass and Charge in the Atom
Deflection of Subatomic Particles in an Electric Field
Determining Subatomic Particles in Atoms and Ions
Trends in Atomic and Ionic Radii Across a Period
Trends in Atomic and Ionic Radii Down a Group
Definition of Isotopes
Isotopic Notation and Symbols
Chemical Properties of Isotopes
Physical Properties of Isotopes
Energy Levels and Subshells
Principal Quantum Number
Shapes of s and p Orbitals
Number of Orbitals and Electrons in Subshells
Order of Subshell Energy Levels
Full and Shorthand Electronic Configurations
Electrons in Boxes Notation
Electronic Configurations of Ions
Free Radicals and Unpaired Electrons
First Ionisation Energy Definition
Equations for Ionisation Energies
Trends in Ionisation Energies Across a Period
Trends in Ionisation Energies Down a Group
Successive Ionisation Energies of an Element
Factors Influencing Ionisation Energies
Using Ionisation Energy Data to Deduce Electronic Configurations
Using Ionisation Energy Data to Determine Periodic Table Position
Unit 2
Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry
Defining the Mole Concept
Understanding the Avogadro Constant
Calculating Molar Masses
Relative Atomic and Molecular Masses
Defining Empirical and Molecular Formulas
Calculating Empirical Formulas from Data
Calculating Molecular Formulas from Data
Understanding Hydrated Compounds
Water of Crystallisation and Its Calculations
Balancing Chemical Equations
Writing Ionic Equations
Using State Symbols in Equations
Predicting Ionic Charges from the Periodic Table
Common Ions and Their Formulas
Reacting Masses and the Mole Concept
Calculating Limiting and Excess Reagents
Percentage Yield Calculations
Calculating Volumes of Gases
Molar Volume of Gases at RTP
Concentration of Solutions and Moles
Calculating Reacting Volumes of Solutions
Stoichiometric Ratios in Reactions
Using Stoichiometry in Gas Reactions
Understanding the Concept of Atom Economy
Calculating Atom Economy in Reactions
Examining the Role of Excess Reactants
Common Errors in Balancing Equations
Interpreting Chemical Equations Quantitatively
Converting Between Mass, Moles, and Particles
Understanding and Using Molar Ratios
Identifying Spectator Ions in Reactions
Real-World Applications of Stoichiometry
Common Traps in Mole Calculations
Significant Figures in Chemical Calculations
Understanding Anhydrous vs Hydrated Compounds
Practical Applications of the Mole Concept
Using Empirical Data to Predict Formulas
Exam Skills for Stoichiometry Questions
Unit 3
Chemical Bonding
Definition of Electronegativity
Factors Affecting Electronegativity
Trends in Electronegativity Across Periods
Trends in Electronegativity Down Groups
Predicting Bond Type Using Electronegativity
Definition of Ionic Bonding
Examples of Ionic Bonding: Sodium Chloride
Examples of Ionic Bonding: Magnesium Oxide
Examples of Ionic Bonding: Calcium Fluoride
Definition of Metallic Bonding
Structure of Metallic Bonding
Definition of Covalent Bonding
Examples of Covalent Bonding: Hydrogen Molecule
Examples of Covalent Bonding: Oxygen Molecule
Examples of Covalent Bonding: Nitrogen Molecule
Examples of Covalent Bonding: Methane
Expanded Octet in Period 3 Elements
Definition of Dative Covalent Bonding
Examples of Dative Bonding: Ammonium Ion
Sigma and Pi Bonds: Definitions
Formation of Sigma Bonds
Formation of Pi Bonds
Hybridisation: sp Orbitals
Hybridisation: sp² Orbitals
Hybridisation: sp³ Orbitals
Bond Energy and Bond Length
Relationship Between Bond Energy and Reactivity
VSEPR Theory: Overview
Shapes of Molecules: Trigonal Planar
Shapes of Molecules: Linear
Shapes of Molecules: Tetrahedral
Shapes of Molecules: Pyramidal
Shapes of Molecules: Non-Linear
Shapes of Molecules: Octahedral
Shapes of Molecules: Trigonal Bipyramidal
Predicting Molecular Shapes Using VSEPR
Definition of Intermolecular Forces
Hydrogen Bonding: Definition and Examples
Hydrogen Bonding in Water and Ice
Van der Waals Forces: Overview
Instantaneous Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces
Permanent Dipole-Permanent Dipole Forces
Comparing Bonding Strengths: Intermolecular vs Intramolecular
Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments
Dot-and-Cross Diagrams for Ionic Bonding
Dot-and-Cross Diagrams for Covalent Bonding
Dot-and-Cross Diagrams for Dative Bonding
Lattice Structures: Giant Ionic
Lattice Structures: Simple Molecular
Lattice Structures: Giant Molecular
Lattice Structures: Giant Metallic
Physical Properties of Bonding Types
Predicting Bonding Type from Properties
Unit 4
States of Matter
Kinetic Theory of Gases
Characteristics of Ideal Gases
The Ideal Gas Equation
Using pV = nRT in Calculations
Determining Molar Mass Using pV = nRT
Real Gases vs Ideal Gases
Deviations from Ideal Gas Behavior
Van der Waals Equation for Real Gases
Pressure in Gases and Molecular Collisions
Crystalline Solids: Overview
Giant Ionic Structures (e.g., NaCl)
Simple Molecular Structures (e.g., Iodine)
Giant Molecular Structures (e.g., Diamond)
Giant Metallic Structures (e.g., Copper)
Physical Properties of Ionic Crystals
Physical Properties of Molecular Crystals
Physical Properties of Giant Molecular Crystals
Physical Properties of Metallic Crystals
Melting and Boiling Points of Crystals
Electrical Conductivity of Crystals
Solubility of Crystalline Substances
Predicting Bonding and Structure from Properties
Comparison of Bonding Types in Solids
Worked Example: Ideal Gas Equation Calculations
Worked Example: Crystalline Structure and Properties
Common Exam Traps in Ideal Gas Calculations
Common Exam Traps in Crystalline Structure Questions
Unit 5
Chemical Energetics
Understanding Enthalpy Changes
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
Standard Enthalpy Change Definitions
Reaction Pathway Diagrams
Enthalpy of Formation
Enthalpy of Combustion
Enthalpy of Neutralisation
Calculating Energy Changes Using q = mcΔT
Introduction to Hess's Law
Constructing Energy Cycles with Hess's Law
Using Hess's Law to Calculate ΔH
Bond Enthalpy: Definition and Concept
Using Bond Enthalpy to Calculate ΔH
Average Bond Enthalpies vs Exact Values
Born-Haber Cycles: Introduction
Lattice Energy: Definition and Factors
Constructing Born-Haber Cycles
Calculating Lattice Energy Using Born-Haber Cycles
First Electron Affinity and Its Trends
Enthalpy of Atomisation
Enthalpy of Solution: Definition and Concept
Hydration Enthalpy: Definition and Factors
Constructing Energy Cycles for Enthalpy of Solution
Calculating Enthalpy of Solution
Factors Affecting Hydration Enthalpy
Entropy: Definition and Concept
Predicting Entropy Changes in Reactions
Calculating Entropy Changes Using ΔS⦵
Gibbs Free Energy: Definition and Equation
Using ΔG to Predict Reaction Feasibility
Temperature Effects on Reaction Feasibility
Worked Examples: Hess's Law Applications
Worked Examples: Bond Enthalpy Calculations
Worked Examples: Born-Haber Cycle Calculations
Worked Examples: Enthalpy of Solution Calculations
Worked Examples: Entropy and ΔG Calculations
Common Errors in Energy Cycle Diagrams
Interpreting Reaction Pathway Diagrams
Exam Techniques for Energetics Questions
Practical: Measuring Enthalpy Changes
Practical: Calorimetry and Heat Loss Corrections
Practical: Using Hess's Law in the Lab
Practical: Determining Bond Enthalpies Experimentally
Unit 6
Electrochemistry
Oxidation and Reduction Definitions
Identifying Redox Reactions
Oxidation Numbers: Rules and Calculation
Balancing Redox Equations Using Oxidation Numbers
Disproportionation Reactions
Oxidising and Reducing Agents
Introduction to Electrochemical Cells
Standard Electrode Potential Definition
The Standard Hydrogen Electrode
Measuring Standard Electrode Potentials
Standard Cell Potential Calculation
Predicting Reaction Feasibility Using E° Values
Direction of Electron Flow in Cells
Constructing Redox Equations from Half Equations
Electrolysis: Principles and Applications
Electrolysis of Molten Compounds
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
Factors Affecting Electrolysis Products
Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
Calculating Charge Passed During Electrolysis
Mass and Volume Calculation in Electrolysis
Determining the Avogadro Constant via Electrolysis
The Nernst Equation
Using the Nernst Equation for E° Variation
Gibbs Free Energy and Electrochemical Cells
Relationship Between ΔG° and E°
Applications of Electrochemical Cells
Industrial Electrolysis Processes
Environmental Impacts of Electrolysis
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Oxidation Numbers
Exam Trap: Incorrect Application of E° Values
Exam Trap: Common Errors in Electrolysis Calculations
Unit 7
Equilibria
Introduction to Dynamic Equilibrium
Characteristics of Dynamic Equilibrium
Conditions for Dynamic Equilibrium
Understanding Le Chatelier’s Principle
Effect of Concentration on Equilibrium
Effect of Pressure on Equilibrium
Effect of Temperature on Equilibrium
Role of Catalysts in Equilibrium
Equilibrium Constants: Introduction to Kc
Writing Kc Expressions
Calculating Kc from Concentration Data
Interpreting Kc Values
Equilibrium Constants: Introduction to Kp
Writing Kp Expressions
Calculating Kp from Partial Pressure Data
Factors Affecting Kc and Kp
Haber Process and Equilibrium Principles
Contact Process and Equilibrium Principles
Introduction to Acid-Base Theories
Brønsted–Lowry Acid-Base Theory
Strong Acids and Bases
Weak Acids and Bases
Acid Dissociation Constant (Ka)
pKa and its Significance
Calculating pH of Strong Acids
Calculating pH of Weak Acids
Neutralisation Reactions
Formation of Salts in Neutralisation
pH Titration Curves
Choosing Indicators for Titrations
Buffer Solutions: Definition and Function
Making Buffer Solutions
How Buffer Solutions Control pH
Uses of Buffer Solutions in Industry
Common Ion Effect and Solubility
Calculating Solubility Product (Ksp)
Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility
Partition Coefficients: Introduction
Calculating Partition Coefficients
Factors Affecting Partition Coefficients
Unit 8
Reaction Kinetics
Defining Reaction Rate
Collision Theory Basics
Effective vs Non-effective Collisions
Factors Affecting Collision Frequency
Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate
Effect of Pressure on Reaction Rate
Calculating Reaction Rates from Experimental Data
Activation Energy Definition
Understanding the Boltzmann Distribution
Sketching the Boltzmann Distribution
Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate
Temperature and Activation Energy in Collisions
Catalysts and Lowering Activation Energy
Homogeneous Catalysis Mechanism
Heterogeneous Catalysis Mechanism
Reaction Pathway Diagrams with Catalysts
Using the Boltzmann Distribution with Catalysts
Enzymes as Biological Catalysts
Defining Rate Equations
Order of Reaction Basics
Determining Reaction Order from Data
Rate Constant and Units
Using Concentration-Time Graphs
Using Rate-Concentration Graphs
Half-Life of First-Order Reactions
Calculating Rate Constants from Half-Life
Multi-Step Reaction Mechanisms
Identifying the Rate-Determining Step
Predicting Reaction Order from Mechanisms
Reaction Intermediates and Catalysts
Temperature and Rate Constant Relationship
Industrial Applications of Catalysis
Examining Catalysis in the Haber Process
Catalytic Converters in Car Engines
Common Exam Traps in Reaction Kinetics
Unit 9
Periodic Table: Chemical Periodicity
Periodic Trends in Atomic Radius
Periodic Trends in Ionic Radius
Periodic Trends in Melting Point
Periodic Trends in Electrical Conductivity
Structure and Bonding of Period 3 Elements
Reactions of Period 3 Elements with Oxygen
Reactions of Period 3 Elements with Chlorine
Reactions of Sodium and Magnesium with Water
Oxidation Numbers of Period 3 Oxides
Oxidation Numbers of Period 3 Chlorides
Reactions of Period 3 Oxides with Water
pH of Solutions from Period 3 Oxides
Acid-Base Behavior of Period 3 Oxides
Amphoteric Behavior of Aluminium Oxide
Reactions of Period 3 Chlorides with Water
pH of Solutions from Period 3 Chlorides
Bonding and Electronegativity in Period 3 Compounds
Chemical Bonding in Period 3 Chlorides
Chemical Bonding in Period 3 Oxides
Predicting Properties Using Chemical Periodicity
Identifying Unknown Elements Using Periodicity
Unit 10
Group 2 Elements
Introduction to Group 2 Elements
Electron Configuration of Group 2 Elements
Trends in Atomic and Ionic Radii in Group 2
Trends in Ionisation Energies in Group 2
Trends in Reactivity of Group 2 Metals
Reaction of Group 2 Metals with Oxygen
Reaction of Group 2 Metals with Water
Reaction of Group 2 Metals with Dilute Acids
Thermal Decomposition of Group 2 Carbonates
Thermal Decomposition of Group 2 Nitrates
Trends in Thermal Stability of Group 2 Compounds
Solubility Trends of Group 2 Hydroxides
Solubility Trends of Group 2 Sulfates
Enthalpy Change of Solution of Group 2 Hydroxides
Enthalpy Change of Solution of Group 2 Sulfates
Polarising Power of Group 2 Cations
Uses of Magnesium in Industry
Uses of Calcium in Industry
The Role of Calcium Hydroxide in Agriculture
The Role of Barium Sulfate in Medicine
Flame Test Colours of Group 2 Ions
Comparison of Group 1 and Group 2 Properties
Common Exam Traps in Group 2 Reactions
Worked Example: Predicting Group 2 Reaction Products
Worked Example: Solubility Calculations for Group 2 Compounds
Worked Example: Explaining Trends in Group 2 Reactivity
Analyzing Group 2 Trends with Successive Ionisation Energies
Exam Skills: Writing Balanced Equations for Group 2 Reactions
Exam Skills: Interpreting Data on Group 2 Trends
Practical: Observing Reactions of Group 2 Metals with Water
Practical: Testing Thermal Stability of Group 2 Nitrates
Practical: Measuring Solubility of Group 2 Hydroxides
Unit 11
Group 17 Elements
Introduction to Group 17 Elements
Physical States and Colours of Halogens
Trend in Volatility of Halogens
Bond Strength in Halogen Molecules
Intermolecular Forces in Halogens
Oxidising Ability of Halogens
Reactions of Halogens with Hydrogen
Thermal Stability of Hydrogen Halides
Reactions of Halide Ions with Silver Nitrate
Reactions of Halide Ions with Ammonia
Reactions of Halide Ions with Concentrated Sulfuric Acid
Reducing Ability of Halide Ions
Disproportionation Reactions of Chlorine
Reaction of Chlorine with Cold Sodium Hydroxide
Reaction of Chlorine with Hot Sodium Hydroxide
Use of Chlorine in Water Purification
Formation and Role of HOCl and ClO-
Periodic Trends in Group 17 Properties
Examining Trends in Bond Enthalpy
Examining Trends in Electronegativity
Examining Trends in Atomic and Ionic Radii
Examining Trends in Melting and Boiling Points
Reactions of Halogens with Metals
Reactions of Halogens with Non-Metals
Industrial Production of Chlorine
Environmental Impacts of Halogen Compounds
Halogens in Organic Synthesis
Safety Precautions When Handling Halogens
Common Exam Misconceptions in Group 17 Chemistry
Unit 12
Nitrogen and Sulfur
The Triple Bond in Nitrogen
Polarity and Reactivity of Nitrogen
The Basicity of Ammonia
Structure of the Ammonium Ion
Formation of Ammonium Salts
Displacement of Ammonia from Salts
Natural Sources of Nitrogen Oxides
Man-Made Sources of Nitrogen Oxides
Catalytic Removal of Nitrogen Oxides
Formation of Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN)
Photochemical Smog and PAN
Role of Nitrogen Oxides in Acid Rain Formation
Catalytic Role of Nitrogen Oxides in Sulfur Dioxide Oxidation
Sources of Sulfur Dioxide in the Atmosphere
Formation of Sulfur Trioxide from Sulfur Dioxide
Acid Rain Formation from Sulfur Compounds
Environmental Effects of Acid Rain
Industrial Sources of Sulfur Dioxide
The Contact Process for Sulfuric Acid
Reactions in the Contact Process
Conditions for the Contact Process
Environmental Impacts of Sulfuric Acid Production
Properties of Sulfur Dioxide as a Reducing Agent
Reactions of Sulfur Dioxide with Water and Alkalis
Oxidation of Sulfur Dioxide to Sulfur Trioxide
Structure and Bonding in Sulfur Dioxide
Structure and Bonding in Sulfur Trioxide
Environmental Monitoring of NOx and SOx
Techniques to Reduce NOx and SOx Emissions
Role of Catalytic Converters in Reducing Emissions
Formation and Effects of Acid Deposition
Industrial Uses of Ammonia
Industrial Uses of Sulfur Compounds
Unit 13
Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Definition of Organic Chemistry
Definition of Functional Groups
Introduction to Hydrocarbons
The Concept of Homologous Series
Characteristics of Homologous Series
Definition of Saturated and Unsaturated Compounds
Structural Formulas: Displayed, Skeletal, and General
Introduction to Systematic Nomenclature
Naming Alkanes
Naming Alkenes
Naming Alcohols
Naming Halogenoalkanes
Naming Aldehydes and Ketones
Naming Carboxylic Acids
Naming Esters
Naming Amines and Nitriles
Empirical and Molecular Formulas
Classification of Organic Reactions
Addition Reactions in Organic Chemistry
Substitution Reactions in Organic Chemistry
Elimination Reactions in Organic Chemistry
Hydrolysis Reactions in Organic Chemistry
Oxidation and Reduction in Organic Chemistry
Definition of Isomerism
Introduction to Structural Isomerism
Chain Isomerism
Positional Isomerism
Functional Group Isomerism
Introduction to Stereoisomerism
Cis-Trans Isomerism in Alkenes
Chirality and Optical Isomerism
Identifying Chiral Centres in Molecules
Shapes of Organic Molecules
Bond Angles in Organic Molecules
Sigma and Pi Bonds in Organic Molecules
Planarity in Organic Molecules
Homolytic and Heterolytic Fission
Definition of Free Radicals
Definition of Electrophiles and Nucleophiles
Introduction to Reaction Mechanisms
Free Radical Substitution Mechanism
Electrophilic Addition Mechanism
Nucleophilic Substitution Mechanism
Nucleophilic Addition Mechanism
Examining Curly Arrows in Mechanisms
Common Exam Errors in Naming Organic Compounds
Common Exam Errors in Identifying Functional Groups
Common Exam Errors in Reaction Mechanisms
Practice: Naming Organic Compounds
Practice: Identifying Isomers
Practice: Predicting Reaction Products
Unit 14
Hydrocarbons
Definition and Properties of Alkanes
Structure and Bonding in Alkanes
Production of Alkanes: Hydrogenation
Cracking of Alkanes
Complete Combustion of Alkanes
Incomplete Combustion of Alkanes
Free-Radical Substitution in Alkanes
Mechanism of Free-Radical Substitution
Reactivity of Alkanes and Polar Reagents
Environmental Impact of Alkane Combustion
Definition and Properties of Alkenes
Structure and Bonding in Alkenes
Production of Alkenes: Elimination Reactions
Dehydration of Alcohols to Alkenes
Electrophilic Addition in Alkenes
Addition of Hydrogen to Alkenes
Hydration of Alkenes to Alcohols
Addition of Halogens to Alkenes
Oxidation of Alkenes with Cold KMnO4
Oxidation of Alkenes with Hot KMnO4
Testing for Alkenes with Bromine Water
Mechanism of Electrophilic Addition in Alkenes
Markovnikov's Rule and Carbocation Stability
Addition Polymerisation of Alkenes
Definition and Properties of Arenes
Structure and Bonding in Benzene
Delocalisation in Benzene
Electrophilic Substitution in Benzene
Nitration of Benzene
Halogenation of Benzene
Friedel-Crafts Alkylation of Benzene
Friedel-Crafts Acylation of Benzene
Reactivity of Benzene vs Alkenes
Environmental Concerns of Arenes
Combustion of Arenes
Hydrocarbon Fuels and Their Uses
Isomerism in Hydrocarbons
Structural Isomerism in Alkanes and Alkenes
Geometrical (cis/trans) Isomerism in Alkenes
Stereoisomerism in Arenes
Hydrocarbons in Crude Oil and Refining
Environmental Issues with Hydrocarbons
Catalytic Converters and Pollution Control
Worked Example: Free-Radical Substitution
Worked Example: Electrophilic Addition
Exam Trap: Misidentifying Reaction Mechanisms
Exam Trap: Confusing Alkanes and Alkenes
Unit 15
Halogen Compounds
Introduction to Halogenoalkanes
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Halogenoalkanes
Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
SN1 Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution
SN2 Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution
Factors Affecting SN1 and SN2 Mechanisms
Reactivity of Halogenoalkanes with Nucleophiles
Reaction of Halogenoalkanes with Aqueous Alkali
Reaction of Halogenoalkanes with Cyanide Ions
Reaction of Halogenoalkanes with Ammonia
Elimination Reactions of Halogenoalkanes
Producing Alkenes via Elimination
Competing Reactions: Substitution vs Elimination
Factors Affecting Elimination Reactions
Preparation of Halogenoalkanes from Alcohols
Free Radical Substitution to Form Halogenoalkanes
Electrophilic Addition to Form Halogenoalkanes
Reactivity of C-X Bonds in Halogenoalkanes
Bond Strength and Reactivity of Halogenoalkanes
Hydrolysis of Halogenoalkanes
Testing for Halogenoalkanes with Silver Nitrate
Environmental Impact of Halogenoalkanes
CFCs and Ozone Depletion
Alternative Compounds to CFCs
Mechanism of Ozone Layer Depletion by Halogenoalkanes
Halogenoalkanes in Organic Synthesis
Examining Reaction Pathways Involving Halogenoalkanes
Common Exam Errors in Halogenoalkane Reactions
Worked Example: SN1 Mechanism
Worked Example: SN2 Mechanism
Worked Example: Elimination Reaction
Worked Example: Hydrolysis of Halogenoalkanes
Predicting Products of Halogenoalkane Reactions
Drawing Reaction Mechanisms for Halogenoalkanes
Understanding Polar Bonds in Halogenoalkanes
Halogenoalkane Reactions with Organic Compounds
Stereochemistry in SN2 Reactions
Identifying Halogenoalkane Functional Groups
Laboratory Preparation of Halogenoalkanes
Industrial Applications of Halogenoalkanes
Environmental Regulations on Halogenoalkanes
Unit 16
Hydroxy Compounds
Introduction to Hydroxy Compounds
Structure and Classification of Alcohols
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Alcohols
Physical Properties of Alcohols
Hydrogen Bonding in Alcohols
Boiling Points and Solubility of Alcohols
Preparation of Alcohols via Steam Hydration of Alkenes
Preparation of Alcohols via Hydrolysis of Halogenoalkanes
Preparation of Alcohols via Reduction of Carbonyl Compounds
Preparation of Alcohols via Hydrolysis of Esters
Preparation of Alcohols via Cold Dilute KMnO4 Oxidation
Combustion of Alcohols
Reaction of Alcohols with Sodium Metal
Oxidation of Primary Alcohols to Aldehydes
Oxidation of Primary Alcohols to Carboxylic Acids
Oxidation of Secondary Alcohols to Ketones
Resistance of Tertiary Alcohols to Oxidation
Formation of Esters from Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Reaction of Alcohols with Hydrogen Halides
Reaction of Alcohols with PCl3, PCl5, and SOCl2
Tri-iodomethane Test for CH3CH(OH)– Group
Acidity of Alcohols Compared to Water
Distinguishing Tests for Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Alcohols
Color Change in Oxidation with Acidified K2Cr2O7
Mechanism of Alcohol Oxidation Reactions
Mechanism of Alcohol Substitution Reactions
Mechanism of Alcohol Dehydration Reactions
Examining Diols and Their Reactions
Alcohols in Organic Synthesis Pathways
Common Exam Traps with Alcohol Reactions
Safety Precautions in Alcohol Reactions
Worked Example: Steam Hydration of Ethene
Worked Example: Oxidation of Ethanol to Ethanal
Worked Example: Dehydration of Ethanol to Ethene
Worked Example: Esterification of Ethanol
Worked Example: Tri-iodomethane Test with Ethanol
Comparing Alcohol Reactions with Other Hydroxy Compounds
Unit 17
Carbonyl Compounds
Introduction to Carbonyl Compounds
Structure of Aldehydes
Structure of Ketones
Physical Properties of Carbonyl Compounds
Chemical Properties of Aldehydes
Chemical Properties of Ketones
Reduction of Aldehydes to Alcohols
Reduction of Ketones to Alcohols
Mechanism of Nucleophilic Addition in Aldehydes
Mechanism of Nucleophilic Addition in Ketones
Reaction of Aldehydes with Hydrogen Cyanide
Reaction of Ketones with Hydrogen Cyanide
Formation of Hydroxynitriles
Using 2,4-DNPH to Detect Carbonyl Groups
Fehling’s Test for Aldehydes
Tollens’ Test for Aldehydes
Distinguishing Aldehydes and Ketones
Tri-Iodomethane Test for Methyl Carbonyl Groups
Examining the CH3CO Group
Common Exam Mistakes in Carbonyl Chemistry
Predicting Reaction Products of Carbonyl Compounds
Impact of Functional Groups on Reactivity
Safety Considerations in Carbonyl Reactions
Applications of Carbonyl Chemistry in Industry
Unit 18
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
Structure of Carboxylic Acids
Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids
Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
Hydrogen Bonding in Carboxylic Acids
Acidity of Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic Acids as Weak Acids
Reactions with Reactive Metals
Reactions with Alkalis
Reactions with Carbonates
Reduction of Carboxylic Acids to Alcohols
Esterification Reaction
Hydrolysis of Esters with Acids
Hydrolysis of Esters with Alkalis
Production of Carboxylic Acids from Alcohols
Production of Carboxylic Acids from Aldehydes
Production of Carboxylic Acids from Nitriles
Structure of Esters
Nomenclature of Esters
Physical Properties of Esters
Formation of Esters via Condensation
Hydrolysis of Esters: Acid vs Alkali
Reduction of Esters to Alcohols
Reactions of Carboxylic Acids with PCl₅
Formation of Acyl Chlorides
Reactions of Acyl Chlorides with Water
Reactions of Acyl Chlorides with Alcohols
Reactions of Acyl Chlorides with Ammonia
Reactions of Acyl Chlorides with Amines
Formation of Amides from Acyl Chlorides
Comparison of Reactivity: Acyl Chlorides vs Esters
Mechanism of Esterification
Mechanism of Hydrolysis of Esters
Mechanism of Acyl Chloride Reactions
Uses of Carboxylic Acids in Industry
Uses of Esters in Fragrances and Solvents
Environmental Impact of Esters
Exam Trap: Misidentifying Functional Groups
Exam Trap: Incorrect Hydrolysis Products
Exam Trap: Confusing Acyl Chlorides and Esters
Worked Example: Esterification Reaction
Worked Example: Hydrolysis of Esters
Worked Example: Reduction of Carboxylic Acids
Worked Example: Reactions of Acyl Chlorides
Interpreting Reaction Pathways Involving Derivatives
Unit 19
Nitrogen Compounds
Introduction to Amines
Structure of Primary Amines
Preparation of Amines via Halogenoalkanes
Reaction Conditions for Amines Synthesis
Basicity of Amines
Reactions of Amines with Acids
Amines as Nucleophiles
Introduction to Nitriles
Preparation of Nitriles via Halogenoalkanes
Reaction Conditions for Nitrile Formation
Hydrolysis of Nitriles to Carboxylic Acids
Acidic and Alkaline Hydrolysis of Nitriles
Introduction to Hydroxynitriles
Formation of Hydroxynitriles from Aldehydes
Formation of Hydroxynitriles from Ketones
Reaction Conditions for Hydroxynitrile Synthesis
Mechanism of Hydroxynitrile Formation
Hydrolysis of Hydroxynitriles
Physical Properties of Amines
Physical Properties of Nitriles
Physical Properties of Hydroxynitriles
Chemical Properties of Amines
Chemical Properties of Nitriles
Chemical Properties of Hydroxynitriles
Uses of Amines in Industry
Uses of Nitriles in Industry
Uses of Hydroxynitriles in Industry
Environmental Impact of Nitrogen Compounds
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Basicity Trends
Exam Trap: Incorrect Reaction Conditions
Exam Trap: Confusing Nitriles with Hydroxynitriles
Worked Example: Synthesis of Amines
Worked Example: Hydrolysis of Nitriles
Worked Example: Formation of Hydroxynitriles
Exam Technique: Writing Balanced Equations
Exam Technique: Identifying Functional Groups
Exam Technique: Mechanisms for Hydroxynitrile Formation
Unit 20
Polymerisation
Introduction to Polymerisation
Definition of Addition Polymerisation
Definition of Condensation Polymerisation
Monomers in Addition Polymerisation
Monomers in Condensation Polymerisation
Formation of Poly(ethene)
Formation of Poly(chloroethene) (PVC)
Formation of Poly(propene)
Structure and Properties of Addition Polymers
Formation of Polyesters
Formation of Polyamides (e.g., Nylon)
Structure and Properties of Condensation Polymers
Comparing Addition and Condensation Polymers
Drawing Repeat Units from Monomers
Identifying Monomers from Polymer Structures
Polymerisation Reaction Mechanisms
Examples of Natural Polymers (e.g., Proteins)
Examples of Synthetic Polymers
Thermoplastics vs Thermosetting Polymers
Crystalline and Amorphous Regions in Polymers
Mechanical Properties of Polymers
Chemical Resistance of Polymers
Biodegradability of Polymers
Environmental Impact of Polymer Waste
Recycling of Polymers
Alternatives to Non-Biodegradable Polymers
Harmful Combustion Products of Polymers
Examining Polymer Applications (e.g., Packaging)
Polymers in Medicine and Healthcare
Polymers in Construction and Industry
Polymers in Electronics and Technology
Life Cycle Analysis of Polymers
Sustainability and Future of Polymers
Common Exam Mistakes in Polymerisation Questions
Worked Examples: Drawing Repeat Units
Worked Examples: Identifying Monomers
Worked Examples: Environmental Impact Questions
Exam Practice: Polymerisation Mechanisms
Exam Practice: Comparing Polymer Types
Exam Practice: Applications and Properties of Polymers
Unit 21
Organic Synthesis
Introduction to Organic Synthesis
Identifying Functional Groups in Molecules
Predicting Organic Properties and Reactions
Multi-Step Synthetic Routes Overview
Planning Multi-Step Synthesis
Analyzing Reaction Pathways
Reagents for Organic Synthesis
Reaction Types in Organic Synthesis
Addition Reactions in Synthesis
Substitution Reactions in Synthesis
Elimination Reactions in Synthesis
Oxidation Reactions in Synthesis
Reduction Reactions in Synthesis
Hydrolysis Reactions in Synthesis
Condensation Reactions in Synthesis
Functional Group Interconversion
Using Alkenes in Synthesis
Using Alcohols in Synthesis
Using Halogenoalkanes in Synthesis
Using Carbonyl Compounds in Synthesis
Using Carboxylic Acids in Synthesis
Using Esters in Synthesis
Using Amines in Synthesis
Using Nitriles in Synthesis
Predicting By-Products in Synthesis
Optimizing Yield in Synthesis
Common Pitfalls in Multi-Step Synthesis
Examining Reaction Mechanisms
Curly Arrows in Reaction Mechanisms
Electrophilic Addition Mechanisms
Nucleophilic Substitution Mechanisms
Nucleophilic Addition Mechanisms
Free Radical Substitution Mechanisms
Elimination Reaction Mechanisms
Using Analytical Techniques in Synthesis
Infrared Spectroscopy in Organic Synthesis
Mass Spectrometry in Organic Synthesis
Identifying Molecular Fragments via Mass Spectra
Interpreting IR Spectra for Functional Groups
Synthetic Routes for Pharmaceuticals
Synthetic Routes for Dyes and Pigments
Synthetic Routes for Polymers
Synthetic Routes for Agrochemicals
Environmental Considerations in Synthesis
Green Chemistry in Organic Synthesis
Evaluating Synthetic Route Efficiency
Exam Practice: Multi-Step Synthesis Questions
Exam Trap: Missing Functional Group Reactions
Exam Trap: Overlooking By-Products
Unit 22
Analytical Techniques
Introduction to Analytical Techniques
Principles of Infrared Spectroscopy
The Electromagnetic Spectrum and IR Region
Molecular Vibrations in IR Spectroscopy
Functional Groups and IR Absorption
Interpreting IR Spectra
Common Peaks in IR Spectroscopy
Applications of IR Spectroscopy in Organic Chemistry
Limitations of IR Spectroscopy
Introduction to Mass Spectrometry
Principles of Mass Spectrometry
The Molecular Ion Peak
Fragmentation in Mass Spectrometry
Interpreting Mass Spectra
Isotopic Peaks in Mass Spectra
Applications of Mass Spectrometry in Organic Chemistry
Identifying Molecular Mass from Mass Spectra
Detecting Isotopes with Mass Spectrometry
The [M+1]+ Peak and Carbon Atoms
The [M+2]+ Peak and Halogen Detection
Combined Use of IR and Mass Spectrometry
Using IR and Mass Spectrometry for Functional Group Identification
Determining Molecular Structures with Combined Techniques
Common Errors in Interpreting IR Spectra
Common Errors in Interpreting Mass Spectra
Examining Unknown Compounds with IR and Mass Spectrometry
Evaluating the Accuracy of Analytical Techniques
Experimental Setup in IR Spectroscopy
Experimental Setup in Mass Spectrometry
Real-World Applications of Analytical Techniques
Environmental Monitoring Using Spectroscopy
Role of Analytical Techniques in Drug Development
Industrial Applications of IR and Mass Spectrometry
Practice Problems: Interpreting IR Spectra
Practice Problems: Interpreting Mass Spectra
Exam Tips for Analytical Techniques Questions
Unit 23
Further Chemistry
Properties of Transition Elements
Variable Oxidation States in Transition Metals
Electronic Configurations of Transition Metals
Formation of Complex Ions
Ligands and Their Types
Coordination Number and Geometry in Complexes
The Chelate Effect
Color in Transition Metal Complexes
d-Orbital Splitting and Crystal Field Theory
High-Spin and Low-Spin Complexes
Factors Affecting Color in Complexes
Magnetic Properties of Transition Metals
Catalytic Properties of Transition Metals
Homogeneous Catalysis by Transition Metals
Heterogeneous Catalysis by Transition Metals
Redox Reactions in Transition Metals
Stability Constants of Complex Ions
The Role of Transition Metals in Biological Systems
Examples of Transition Metal Complexes in Medicine
Ligand Substitution Reactions
Kinetics of Ligand Substitution Reactions
Precipitation Reactions of Transition Metals
Oxidation and Reduction of Transition Metals
Disproportionation Reactions in Transition Metals
Examples of Industrial Processes Using Transition Metals
Advanced Reaction Mechanisms: Nucleophilic Substitution
Advanced Reaction Mechanisms: Electrophilic Substitution
Oxidative Addition and Reductive Elimination
Ligand Exchange Mechanisms: Associative and Dissociative
Catalysis in Organic Synthesis Using Transition Metals
Common Exam Traps in Transition Metal Chemistry
Worked Examples: Calculating Oxidation States
Worked Examples: Crystal Field Splitting Energy
Interpreting UV-Vis Spectra of Complex Ions
Predicting Shapes of Complex Ions
Balancing Redox Equations with Transition Metals
The Role of Ligand Field Stabilization Energy
The Jahn-Teller Effect in Transition Metal Complexes
Exam Techniques for Transition Metal Questions
Applications of Transition Metals in Everyday Life