By Revision Genie
Development of Practical Skills
Unit 1
Experimental Design Principles
Selecting Apparatus and Techniques
Identifying Variables to Control
Evaluating Experimental Methods
Using Practical Apparatus Correctly
Recording Measurements with Units
Presenting Data in Tables and Graphs
Processing Qualitative Results
Processing Quantitative Results
Using Significant Figures in Analysis
Plotting Graphs from Experimental Data
Interpreting Gradients and Intercepts
Evaluating Experimental Results
Identifying Anomalies in Data
Assessing Limitations in Methods
Calculating Measurement Uncertainties
Improving Experimental Design
Independent Thinking in Investigations
Minimizing Risks in Practical Work
Following Written Experimental Instructions
Keeping Accurate Experimental Records
Using Software for Data Analysis
Researching and Citing Scientific Sources
Handling Hazardous Substances Safely
Measuring Mass, Volume, and Temperature
Using Water Baths and Heaters Safely
Measuring pH with Probes and Charts
Performing Acid-Base Titrations
Setting Up Distillation Apparatus
Testing for Ions and Functional Groups
Filtration and Vacuum Filtration Techniques
Preparing Standard Solutions
Using Indicators in Titrations
Purifying Solids by Recrystallisation
Purifying Liquids Using Separating Funnels
Using Melting Point Apparatus
Performing Thin Layer Chromatography
Setting Up Electrochemical Cells
Measuring Reaction Rates Experimentally
Using Initial Rate and Clock Reactions
Continuous Monitoring of Reaction Rates
Practical Endorsement Requirements Overview
Understanding CPAC Assessment Criteria
Completing 12 Assessed Practicals
Documenting Practical Endorsement Evidence
Common Exam Traps in Practical Skills Questions
Linking Practical Skills to Theory
Unit 2
Elements of Life
Atomic Number and Mass Number
Isotopes and Relative Atomic Mass
The Concept of the Mole
Empirical and Molecular Formulae
Calculating Percentage Composition
Water of Crystallisation
Percentage Yield Calculations
Concentration and Dilution Calculations
Acid-Base Titration Techniques
Writing Balanced Chemical Equations
Ionic Equations and State Symbols
Electron Configuration and Sub-Shells
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
Electronic Configurations of Ions
Development of Atomic Models
Evidence from the Geiger-Marsden Experiment
Ionisation Energies and Electron Shells
Fusion Reactions and Element Formation
Nuclear Equations for Fusion
Dot-and-Cross Diagrams for Bonds
Electrostatic Forces in Bonding
Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic Lattices
Properties of Giant and Molecular Structures
Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
Predicting Molecular Shapes and Bond Angles
Sodium Chloride Lattice Structure
Periodic Table and Atomic Number
Periodic Trends in Melting Points
S-, P-, and D-Block Classification
Group 2 Reactions with Water and Oxygen
Thermal Stability of Group 2 Carbonates
Solubility of Group 2 Hydroxides and Carbonates
Ionisation Energies Across Periods and Groups
Charge Density and Thermal Stability of Ions
Testing for Ions in Salts
Sequence of Tests for Salt Identification
Acid-Base Reactions and Neutralisation
Making Soluble and Insoluble Salts
Basic Nature of Group 2 Oxides and Hydroxides
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Absorption and Emission Spectra
∆E = hν and Energy Transitions
Flame Tests for Metal Ions
Mass Spectrometry and Isotope Abundance
Calculating Relative Atomic Mass from Spectra
Unit 3
Developing Fuels
Introduction to Thermochemistry
Defining Enthalpy Change
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
Standard Conditions in Chemistry
Enthalpy Change of Combustion
Enthalpy Change of Formation
Enthalpy Change of Reaction
Enthalpy Change of Neutralisation
Using Hess' Law in Calculations
Constructing Enthalpy Cycles
Bond Enthalpy and Energy Changes
Measuring Energy Changes in Reactions
Using q = mcΔT in Calculations
Practical: Measuring Combustion Energy
Practical: Enthalpy Changes in Solution
Hydrocarbons: Alkanes and Alkenes
Complete and Incomplete Combustion
Cracking of Hydrocarbons
Naming Alkanes and Alkenes
Reactions of Alkenes
Electrophilic Addition Mechanism
Addition Polymerisation
Properties of Addition Polymers
Shapes of Organic Molecules
Sigma and Pi Bonds in Molecules
Structural Isomerism in Hydrocarbons
E/Z Isomerism in Alkenes
Environmental Impact of Combustion
Sources of Atmospheric Pollutants
Reducing Pollutants from Fuels
Biofuels as Alternative Fuels
Hydrogen as a Fuel of the Future
Heterogeneous Catalysis in Reactions
Catalyst Poisons and Their Effects
The Role of Catalysts in Cracking
Ideal Gas Equation: pV = nRT
Gas Volume Calculations at RTP
Practical: Measuring Gas Volumes
Sustainability in Fuel Use
Balancing Combustion Equations
Practical: Testing for Unsaturation
Energy Efficiency of Fuels
Comparing Fossil Fuels and Alternatives
Unit 4
Elements from the Sea
Introduction to Halogens and Their Properties
Physical Properties of Halogens
Trends in Reactivity of Halogens
Reactions of Halogens with Metals and Non-Metals
Displacement Reactions of Halogens
Halide Ion Reactions with Silver Nitrate
Solubility of Silver Halides in Ammonia
Preparation of Hydrogen Halides
Thermal Stability of Hydrogen Halides
Reactions of Hydrogen Halides with Ammonia
Reactions of Hydrogen Halides with Sulfuric Acid
Electrolysis of Molten Salts
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
Half-Equations in Electrolysis
Redox Reactions and Electron Transfer
Assigning Oxidation States
Balancing Redox Equations
Iodine–Thiosulfate Titrations
Systematic Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds
Dynamic Equilibrium and Its Characteristics
The Equilibrium Constant (Kc)
Calculations Involving Kc
Effect of Concentration on Equilibrium Position
Effect of Temperature and Pressure on Equilibrium
Chlorine's Role in Water Sterilisation
Risks and Benefits of Chlorine Use
Atom Economy and Its Importance
Calculating Atom Economy
Efficient Use of Atoms in Reactions
The Deacon Process for Hydrogen Chloride
Position of Equilibrium in Industrial Processes
Unit 5
The Ozone Story
Composition of the Atmosphere
Calculating Gas Composition by Volume
Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
Predicting Molecular Polarity
Intermolecular Bonds: Instantaneous Dipole-Induced Dipole
Intermolecular Bonds: Permanent Dipole-Permanent Dipole
Hydrogen Bonding in Water and Ice
Explaining Boiling Points with Intermolecular Bonds
UV Radiation and Molecular Interactions
Frequency, Wavelength, and Energy Calculations
Ozone's Role as a Sunscreen
The Formation and Destruction of Ozone
Ozone in the Troposphere and Photochemical Smog
Activation Enthalpy and Energy Profiles
Collision Theory and Reaction Rates
Boltzmann Distribution and Temperature Effects on Rate
The Role of Catalysts in Reactions
Homogeneous Catalysis and Intermediate Formation
Radical Formation and Reactivity
Homolytic and Heterolytic Bond Fission
Radical Chain Reactions: Mechanisms
Radical Reactions of Alkanes with Halogens
Photodissociation of Haloalkanes
Catalytic Destruction of Ozone by Radicals
Properties of Haloalkanes: Boiling Points
Nucleophilic Substitution of Haloalkanes
SN2 Mechanism for Nucleophilic Substitution
Experimental Evidence for Haloalkane Reactivity
Sustainability of the Ozone Layer
CFCs, HFCs, and Their Environmental Impact
Impact of UV Radiation on Human Skin
Hydrolysis of Haloalkanes
Systematic Nomenclature of Haloalkanes
Experimental Techniques in Reaction Kinetics
Graphing Reaction Rates and Interpreting Data
Parts Per Million (ppm) Calculations for Gases
Instantaneous and Average Reaction Rates
Environmental Effects of Ozone in Different Layers
Sustainability and Alternatives to CFCs
Unit 6
What’s in a Medicine?
Introduction to Phenols
Acidic Properties of Phenols
Reaction of Phenols with Alkalis
Phenols and Iron(III) Chloride Test
Ester Formation from Phenols
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Alcohols
Reactions of Alcohols with Carboxylic Acids
Reactions of Alcohols with Acid Anhydrides
Oxidation of Alcohols to Aldehydes and Ketones
Oxidation of Alcohols to Carboxylic Acids
Dehydration of Alcohols to Alkenes
Substitution Reactions of Alcohols to Form Haloalkanes
Introduction to Carboxylic Acids
Reactions of Carboxylic Acids with Alcohols
Reactions of Carboxylic Acids with Carbonates
Reactions of Carboxylic Acids with Alkalis
Introduction to Esters
Formation of Esters from Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Formation of Esters from Alcohols and Acid Anhydrides
Properties and Uses of Esters
Introduction to Acid Anhydrides
Reactions of Acid Anhydrides with Phenols
Reactions of Acid Anhydrides with Alcohols
Organic Synthesis: Two-Step Reactions
Heating Under Reflux Technique
Distillation Technique in Organic Synthesis
Purification of Organic Solids by Recrystallisation
Purification of Organic Liquids Using Separating Funnels
Melting Point Determination of Organic Solids
Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) Basics
Interpreting Thin Layer Chromatography Results
Introduction to Green Chemistry Principles
Examples of Green Chemistry in Industry
Mass Spectrometry: Identifying the M+ Peak
Fragmentation Patterns in Mass Spectrometry
Understanding the M+1 Peak in Mass Spectrometry
Infrared Spectroscopy: Bond Vibrations
Functional Group Identification Using IR Spectra
Comparing IR Spectra of Organic Compounds
Synthesis and Purification of Aspirin
Examining the Role of Solvents in Recrystallisation
Common Errors in Organic Synthesis Experiments
Practical Techniques for Measuring Reaction Yields
Safety Considerations in Organic Synthesis
Applications of Phenols and Alcohols in Medicine
Analyzing Organic Reactions in Green Chemistry Contexts
Exam Tips for Analytical Techniques Questions
Unit 7
The Chemical Industry
The Nitrogen Cycle and Its Importance
Bonding in Nitrogen Gas and Ammonia
Structure and Properties of the Ammonium Ion
Oxides of Nitrogen: Names and Appearances
Interconversion of Nitrogen Compounds
Tests for Nitrate(V) and Ammonium Ions
The Haber Process for Ammonia Production
Industrial Production of Nitric Acid
Chemical Reactions in the Ostwald Process
Sulfuric Acid Production via the Contact Process
Factors Affecting Industrial Reaction Rates
Defining Rate of Reaction and Rate Constants
Orders of Reaction and Rate Equations
Using Data to Determine Reaction Orders
Graphical Methods for Reaction Kinetics
Half-Life Calculations in Kinetics
The Arrhenius Equation and Activation Energy
Rate-Determining Step and Reaction Mechanisms
Equilibrium Constants: Definition and Units
Calculating Kc from Equilibrium Data
Effect of Temperature on Equilibrium Constants
Effect of Pressure and Concentration on Equilibria
Catalysts and Their Role in Equilibria
Balancing Industrial Efficiency with Yield
Economic Considerations in Industrial Chemistry
Hazards and Safety in Industrial Processes
Environmental Impact of Industrial Chemistry
Sustainability in the Chemical Industry
Atom Economy and Green Chemistry Principles
Ethanoic Acid Production in Industry
Analysis of Costs in Industrial Processes
Benefits and Risks of Industrial Chemicals
Practical Techniques for Measuring Reaction Rates
Experimental Determination of Equilibrium Constants
Testing for Nitrogen Compounds in the Lab
Common Traps in Equilibrium Calculations
Worked Example: Rate Equation Derivation
Worked Example: Calculating Kc Step-by-Step
Common Errors in Kinetics Graph Interpretation
Using Catalysts in Industrial Processes
Worked Example: Arrhenius Equation Application
Optimizing Conditions for Industrial Reactions
Nitrogen Chemistry in Environmental Contexts
The Role of Co-Products and By-Products
Evaluating Industrial Processes: A Case Study
Unit 8
Polymers and Life
Condensation Polymers: Formation and Examples
Hydrolysis of Condensation Polymers
The Chemistry of Carboxylic Acids
Reactions and Properties of Phenols
Formation and Reactions of Esters
Structure and Reactions of Amines
Structure and Reactions of Amides
Addition vs Condensation Polymerisation
Nomenclature of Condensation Polymers
Amino Acids: General Structure and Properties
Peptide Bonds and Protein Formation
Hydrolysis of Proteins into Amino Acids
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Protein Structures
Intermolecular Bonds in Protein Structures
DNA and RNA: Monomers and Polymerisation
Phosphate-Sugar Backbone in DNA and RNA
Base Pairing and Hydrogen Bonding in DNA
DNA Replication and Genetic Encoding
RNA and Protein Synthesis
Enzyme Catalysis: Mechanism and Specificity
Enzyme Kinetics: Rate vs Substrate Concentration
Competitive and Non-Competitive Inhibition
Acid-Base Properties of Carboxylic Acids
Reactions of Amines with Acids
Zwitterions and Acid-Base Properties of Amino Acids
Optical Isomerism and Chiral Centers
Enantiomers: Properties and Representations
Pharmacophores and Molecular Recognition
Interactions at Receptor Sites
3D Molecular Interactions: Size, Shape, and Bonds
Mass Spectrometry: Molecular Formula from M+ Peak
Infrared Spectroscopy: Functional Group Identification
Proton NMR: Chemical Shifts and Splitting Patterns
Carbon-13 NMR: Interpreting Spectra
Combining Spectroscopic Techniques for Structure
Hydrolysis of Esters and Amides
Reactions of Acyl Chlorides with Amines and Alcohols
Nylon Structures and Naming
Structural Formulae of Organic Functional Groups
Experimental Techniques: Paper Chromatography
Experimental Techniques: Enzyme Kinetics
Experimental Techniques: Hydrolysis of Polymers
Experimental Techniques: Amino Acid Reactions
Experimental Techniques: Amine Reactions
Experimental Techniques: Spectroscopic Analysis
Unit 9
Oceans
Dissolving Ionic Solids
Hydrated Ions
Enthalpy Change of Solution (ΔsolH)
Lattice Enthalpy (ΔLEH)
Enthalpy Change of Hydration (ΔhydH)
Enthalpy Cycles for Dissolution
Calculating Enthalpy Changes Using Cycles
Charge Density and Lattice Enthalpy
Charge Density and Hydration Enthalpy
Measuring Energy Changes in Solution
The Greenhouse Effect
Role of Oceans in Energy Redistribution
Absorption of Infrared Radiation
Carbon Dioxide Absorption by Oceans
Acid–Base Equilibria
Brønsted–Lowry Acid and Base Theory
Strong Acids vs Weak Acids
pH Calculations for Strong Acids
pH Calculations for Weak Acids
Buffers and Their Function
Buffer Calculations
Solubility Product (Ksp)
Calculating Solubility Products
Common Ion Effect on Solubility
Entropy as a Measure of Disorder
Entropy Changes in States of Matter
Entropy Changes in Gaseous Reactions
Qualitative Predictions of ΔsysS
Total Entropy Change (ΔtotS)
Calculating ΔsurrS and ΔtotS
Feasibility of Reactions and ΔtotS
Energy Redistribution by Oceans
Unit 10
Developing Metals
Oxidation and Reduction Definitions
Identifying Oxidising and Reducing Agents
Balancing Redox Equations Using Oxidation States
Redox Titrations: Principles and Purpose
Conducting a Redox Titration Experiment
Calculations in Redox Titrations
Common Errors in Redox Titrations
Introduction to Electrochemical Cells
Components of an Electrochemical Cell
Standard Electrode Potentials: Definition and Measurement
Using the Electrochemical Series to Predict Reactions
Calculating Cell Potential (E°cell)
Drawing and Interpreting Electrochemical Cell Diagrams
Applications of Electrochemical Cells
Limitations of Standard Electrode Potentials
Transition Metals: General Properties
Electronic Configurations of Transition Metals
Variable Oxidation States in Transition Metals
Formation of Complex Ions
Ligands and Coordination Numbers
Shapes of Complex Ions
The Role of Transition Metals as Catalysts
Colour in Transition Metal Complexes
Explaining Colour Using d-Orbital Splitting
Factors Affecting Colour in Complex Ions
Using Colorimetry to Determine Concentrations
The Chelate Effect in Complex Formation
Stability of Complex Ions
Precipitation Reactions of Transition Metals
Redox Reactions Involving Transition Metals
Examining the Role of Transition Metals in Biological Systems
Practical Techniques for Transition Metal Chemistry
Interpreting Redox Titration Graphs
Common Transition Metal Complexes and Their Uses
Environmental Impact of Transition Metal Chemistry
Exam Tips for Redox and Electrochemical Cells
Exam Tips for Transition Metal Chemistry
Unit 11
Colour by Design
Introduction to Colour and Dyes
The Chemistry of Dyes
Natural vs Synthetic Dyes
The Structure of Aromatic Compounds
Benzene: Structure and Stability
Electrophilic Substitution in Benzene
Aromatic Compounds in Dye Chemistry
The Formation of Azo Compounds
Diazotisation Reaction
Coupling Reactions in Azo Dye Synthesis
Properties and Uses of Azo Dyes
Carbonyl Compounds: Aldehydes and Ketones
Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones
Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
The Role of Carbonyl Compounds in Dye Synthesis
Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC): Principles
Interpreting TLC Results
Gas-Liquid Chromatography (GLC): Principles
Applications of Gas-Liquid Chromatography
Interpreting GLC Data
The Role of Chromatography in Dye Analysis
Spectroscopy in Dye Chemistry
UV-Visible Spectroscopy and Colour
Factors Affecting Dye Colour
Bonding and Chromophore Functionality
Auxochromes and Their Effects on Colour
The Environmental Impact of Dyes
Sustainability in Dye Production
Examining Dye Degradation
Common Exam Mistakes in Dye Chemistry
Worked Example: Azo Dye Synthesis
Worked Example: TLC Analysis of a Dye
Worked Example: GLC Data Interpretation
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Chromatography Data
Exam Trap: Confusing Diazotisation and Coupling
Unit 12
Chemical Literacy
Understanding Scientific Texts
Identifying Key Information in Texts
Extracting Data from Tables
Extracting Data from Graphs
Interpreting Chemical Diagrams
Understanding Experimental Descriptions
Interpreting Results in Context
Summarising Scientific Information
Identifying Variables in Experiments
Recognising Patterns and Trends in Data
Understanding Scientific Terminology
Using Units and Conversions
Interpreting Chemical Equations
Understanding Experimental Errors
Writing Logical Conclusions
Using Evidence to Support Arguments
Explaining Chemical Processes
Describing Trends in Data
Drawing Inferences from Data
Constructing Balanced Arguments
Critiquing Scientific Claims
Synthesising Information from Multiple Sources
Recognising Bias in Scientific Texts
Evaluating the Reliability of Data
Understanding Ethical Implications in Chemistry
Writing Extended Scientific Responses
Using Chemical Literacy in Unfamiliar Contexts
Applying Knowledge to Solve Problems
Avoiding Common Misinterpretation Errors
Using Technical Terms Correctly
Structuring Written Responses Effectively
Linking Data to Chemical Principles
Describing Experimental Procedures
Interpreting Pre-Release Articles
Identifying Assumptions in Data Analysis
Understanding Limitations of Scientific Models
Comparing Different Data Sets
Critically Evaluating Data Presentation
Using Mathematical Calculations in Analysis
Constructing Hypotheses from Data
Identifying Contradictions in Scientific Texts
Recognising Trends in Chemical Research
Understanding the Role of Chemistry in Society
Explaining the Impact of Chemistry on the Environment
Developing Skills for Synoptic Assessment
Integrating Practical and Theoretical Knowledge
Communicating Chemistry to Non-Specialists