Your journey to excellence in
By Revision Genie
Biological Molecules
Unit 1
Monomers and Polymers
Condensation and Hydrolysis Reactions
Monosaccharides: Structure and Types
Formation of Disaccharides
Structure of α-Glucose and β-Glucose
Polysaccharides: Glycogen and Starch
Cellulose: Structure and Function
Biochemical Tests for Reducing Sugars
Biochemical Tests for Non-Reducing Sugars
Biochemical Tests for Starch
Triglycerides: Structure and Formation
Saturated vs Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Phospholipids: Structure and Properties
Emulsion Test for Lipids
Amino Acids: General Structure
Peptide Bonds and Polypeptides
Protein Structures: Primary to Quaternary
Hydrogen, Ionic, and Disulfide Bonds in Proteins
Biuret Test for Proteins
Enzymes: Induced Fit Model
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
Competitive and Non-Competitive Inhibition
Required Practical: Enzyme Rate Investigation
DNA Structure: Nucleotides and Base Pairing
RNA Structure and Function
DNA Replication: Semi-Conservative Process
Role of DNA Helicase and Polymerase
ATP Structure and Hydrolysis
ATP Resynthesis and Energy Coupling
Properties of Water in Biology
Water as a Metabolite and Solvent
Heat Capacity and Latent Heat of Vaporisation
Cohesion and Surface Tension in Water
Inorganic Ions: Roles in Biological Processes
Hydrogen Ions and pH
Iron Ions in Haemoglobin
Sodium Ions and Co-Transport
Phosphate Ions in DNA and ATP
Unit 2
Cells
Overview of Cell Theory
Structure of Eukaryotic Cells
Functions of Eukaryotic Organelles
Specialisation in Eukaryotic Cells
Structure of Prokaryotic Cells
Features of Prokaryotic Cells
Structure of Viruses
Principles of Optical Microscopy
Principles of Electron Microscopy
Magnification vs Resolution
Measuring Objects in Microscopy
Cell Fractionation Techniques
Ultracentrifugation Process
Stages of the Cell Cycle
DNA Replication in Interphase
Chromosome Behaviour in Mitosis
Role of Spindle Fibres in Mitosis
Cytokinesis in Eukaryotic Cells
Uncontrolled Cell Division and Cancer
Binary Fission in Prokaryotes
Viral Replication Mechanisms
Fluid-Mosaic Model of Membranes
Role of Cholesterol in Membranes
Simple Diffusion Across Membranes
Facilitated Diffusion Mechanism
Osmosis and Water Potential
Active Transport Across Membranes
Co-Transport Mechanism
Adaptations for Rapid Transport
Antigens and Cell Recognition
Immune System Identification of Pathogens
Phagocytosis of Pathogens
Cellular Response of T Lymphocytes
Role of B Lymphocytes in Immunity
Structure and Function of Antibodies
Primary and Secondary Immune Responses
Vaccines and Herd Immunity
Active vs Passive Immunity
Structure of HIV Virus
Replication of HIV in Helper T Cells
Symptoms of AIDS and HIV Mechanism
Why Antibiotics Fail Against Viruses
Monoclonal Antibodies in Medicine
Ethical Issues in Vaccine Use
ELISA Test for Antibodies
Unit 3
Organisms Exchange Substances
Surface Area to Volume Ratio
Adaptations for Gas Exchange in Single-Celled Organisms
Gas Exchange in Insects
Gas Exchange in Fish and Counter-Current Flow
Gas Exchange in Dicotyledonous Plants
Human Gas Exchange System Structure
Alveolar Epithelium and Gas Exchange
Mechanism of Breathing
Effect of Lung Disease on Gas Exchange
Digestion of Carbohydrates by Amylase
Digestion of Lipids by Lipase and Bile Salts
Digestion of Proteins by Peptidases
Co-Transport Mechanisms for Absorption in the Ileum
Role of Micelles in Lipid Absorption
Haemoglobin Structure and Function
Oxyhaemoglobin Dissociation Curve
The Bohr Effect and Carbon Dioxide
Adaptations of Haemoglobin in Different Animals
Structure of the Human Heart
Pressure and Volume Changes in the Cardiac Cycle
Structure and Function of Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
Formation and Return of Tissue Fluid
Xylem and Cohesion-Tension Theory
Phloem and Mass Flow Hypothesis
Tracers and Ringing Experiments in Plants
Unit 4
Genetic Information and Variation
Structure of DNA
Structure of RNA
Nucleotides and Their Components
Complementary Base Pairing
DNA as a Double Helix
RNA as a Single Strand
DNA Replication Process
Role of DNA Helicase
Role of DNA Polymerase
Semi-Conservative Replication
Evidence for DNA Carrying Genetic Information
The Genetic Code: Universal, Non-Overlapping, Degenerate
Genes and Their Locus
Coding vs Non-Coding DNA
Exons and Introns
Transcription Process
Role of RNA Polymerase in Transcription
Splicing of Pre-mRNA
Structure of mRNA
Structure of tRNA
Translation Process
Role of Ribosomes in Translation
Role of tRNA in Translation
Role of ATP in Protein Synthesis
Gene Mutations: Substitution and Deletion
Degenerate Nature of the Genetic Code
Mutagenic Agents
Chromosome Non-Disjunction
Meiosis: Two Nuclear Divisions
Independent Segregation in Meiosis
Crossing Over in Meiosis
Genetic Variation Through Meiosis
Random Fertilisation and Genetic Diversity
Calculating Genetic Combinations in Meiosis
Genetic Diversity and Natural Selection
Random Mutation and Evolution
Directional Selection Example: Antibiotic Resistance
Stabilising Selection Example: Human Birth Weight
Adaptations: Anatomical, Physiological, Behavioural
Species Definition: Fertile Offspring
Courtship Behaviour in Species Recognition
Taxonomy: Hierarchical Classification
Binomial Naming System
Phylogenetic Classification
Species Richness and Biodiversity
Index of Diversity Calculation
Impact of Farming on Biodiversity
Measuring Genetic Diversity
DNA Base Sequence Comparisons
Amino Acid Sequence Comparisons
Quantitative Sampling Methods
Standard Deviation in Variation Studies
Unit 5
Energy Transfers in Organisms
Overview of Energy Transfers in Organisms
The Process of Photosynthesis
The Light-Dependent Reaction
Photoionisation of Chlorophyll
Electron Transfer Chain in Photosynthesis
Photolysis of Water
ATP Production in Photosynthesis
Reduced NADP in Photosynthesis
The Light-Independent Reaction
Role of Rubisco in Photosynthesis
The Calvin Cycle
Triose Phosphate and Organic Substances
Limiting Factors in Photosynthesis
Chromatography of Plant Pigments
Dehydrogenase Activity in Chloroplasts
Introduction to Respiration
Glycolysis Process
Anaerobic Respiration and Pyruvate
Aerobic Respiration Overview
The Link Reaction
The Krebs Cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Chemiosmotic Theory in Respiration
Alternative Respiratory Substrates
Investigating Respiration Rates
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
Gross Primary Production (GPP)
Net Primary Production (NPP)
Calculating Net Production in Consumers
Efficiency of Energy Transfers
Farming Practices and Energy Transfer
Measuring Biomass
Calorimetry for Energy Content
Nutrient Cycles Overview
The Nitrogen Cycle
Role of Saprobionts in Decomposition
Ammonification and Nitrification
Nitrogen Fixation and Denitrification
The Phosphorus Cycle
Role of Mycorrhizae in Nutrient Uptake
Artificial and Natural Fertilisers
Environmental Impact of Fertilisers
Leaching and Eutrophication
Unit 6
Organisms Respond to Changes
Definition of Stimulus and Response
Role of Receptors in Detection
Role of Coordinators in Response
Role of Effectors in Response
Comparison of Nervous and Hormonal Responses
Plant Growth Factors and Responses
Effect of IAA on Cell Elongation
Phototropism in Plants
Gravitropism in Plants
Simple Reflexes and Survival
Taxes and Kineses in Organisms
Structure of Pacinian Corpuscle
Function of Stretch-Mediated Sodium Channels
Sensitivity of Rods and Cones in Retina
Visual Acuity and Optical Pigments
Myogenic Stimulation of the Heart
Role of SAN, AVN, and Purkyne Tissue
Chemoreceptors and Pressure Receptors
Autonomic Nervous System and Heart Rate
Structure of Myelinated Motor Neurone
Resting Potential in Neurones
Generation of Action Potential
All-or-Nothing Principle in Neurones
Transmission Along Non-Myelinated Axons
Saltatory Conduction in Myelinated Axons
Refractory Period and Impulse Frequency
Factors Affecting Speed of Conduction
Structure of Synapse and Neuromuscular Junction
Transmission Across Cholinergic Synapse
Unidirectionality of Synaptic Transmission
Temporal and Spatial Summation
Inhibitory Synapses and Their Role
Comparison of Synapse and Neuromuscular Junction
Structure of Skeletal Muscle
Microscopic Structure of Myofibrils
Role of Actin and Myosin in Contraction
Role of Calcium Ions in Muscle Contraction
ATP and Phosphocreatine in Muscle Contraction
Slow and Fast Skeletal Muscle Fibres
Principles of Homeostasis
Importance of Stable Temperature and pH
Importance of Stable Blood Glucose Levels
Negative Feedback in Homeostasis
Role of Liver in Glucose Regulation
Insulin Action on Target Cells
Glucagon Action on Target Cells
Adrenaline and Second Messenger Model
Causes and Management of Diabetes
Structure of Nephron
Formation of Glomerular Filtrate
Reabsorption in Proximal Convoluted Tubule
Role of Loop of Henle in Sodium Gradient
Reabsorption in Collecting Ducts
Role of ADH in Osmoregulation
Unit 7
Genetics, Populations, and Evolution
Genotype and Phenotype
Alleles: Dominant, Recessive, Codominant
Homozygous and Heterozygous Alleles
Monohybrid Crosses
Dihybrid Crosses
Sex-Linkage in Genetic Diagrams
Autosomal Linkage
Multiple Alleles in Inheritance
Epistasis in Genetic Crosses
Chi-Squared Test in Genetics
Population and Gene Pool
Allele Frequency in Populations
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Using Hardy-Weinberg Equation
Sources of Genetic Variation
Natural Selection and Allele Frequency
Directional Selection
Stabilising Selection
Disruptive Selection
Allopatric Speciation
Sympatric Speciation
Genetic Drift in Small Populations
Reproductive Isolation and Speciation
Ecosystems: Biotic and Abiotic Factors
Competition Within and Between Populations
Energy Transfer in Ecosystems
Trophic Levels and Energy Flow
Calculating Efficiency of Energy Transfer
Gross and Net Primary Production
Measuring Biomass and Energy in Ecosystems
Nitrogen Cycle Processes
Phosphorus Cycle Processes
Mycorrhizae and Nutrient Uptake
Natural and Artificial Fertilisers
Examining Population Dynamics
Sampling Techniques for Biodiversity
Species Richness and Index of Diversity
Calculating Index of Diversity
Conservation vs Farming Practices
Genetic Diversity Assessment Methods
DNA Base Sequences in Diversity Studies
Amino Acid Sequences in Diversity Studies
Random Sampling in Population Studies
Standard Deviation in Biological Data
Phylogenetic Classification Systems
Courtship Behaviour and Species Recognition
Unit 8
Control of Gene Expression
Gene Expression Overview
Regulation of Transcription
Role of Transcription Factors
RNA Interference Mechanism
Epigenetics and Gene Expression
DNA Methylation and Gene Silencing
Histone Modification and Gene Activation
Acetylation vs. Methylation of Histones
Epigenetic Inheritance
Mutations and Their Effects on Genes
Base Substitution Mutations
Base Deletion Mutations
Frameshift Mutations Explained
Degenerate Nature of Genetic Code
Mutagenic Agents and Their Impact
Cancer and Uncontrolled Cell Division
Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes
Role of p53 in Cell Cycle Regulation
Stem Cells and Gene Expression
Totipotent vs. Pluripotent Cells
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)
Applications of Stem Cell Therapy
Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes
The Lac Operon Model
Inducible vs. Repressible Operons
Post-Transcriptional Regulation
Alternative Splicing Mechanism
Post-Translational Modifications
Protein Activation by Phosphorylation
Exam Trap: Misinterpreting Epigenetic Data
Exam Trap: Mutation Effects on Protein Function
Exam Trap: Confusing Operon Models
Worked Example: Predicting Mutation Outcomes
Worked Example: Interpreting Epigenetic Changes
Worked Example: Lac Operon Regulation
Practical: Investigating Gene Expression in Stem Cells
Practical: Effects of Mutagens on DNA
Practical: Chromatin Structure Analysis
Unit 9
Archive
Monomers, polymers, condensation and hydrolysis
Eukaryotic cells and organelles
Surface area to volume ratio and exchange surfaces
DNA, genes, chromosomes and the genetic code
Photosynthesis overview and limiting factors
Stimuli, receptors and effectors
Monohybrid and dihybrid inheritance
Control of transcription and translation
Carbohydrates: structure, roles and tests
Prokaryotic cells, viruses and virus replication
Gas exchange in insects (tracheal system)
Transcription (including RNA processing)
Required practical 7: chromatography of photosynthetic pigments
Plant responses: tropisms and IAA (auxin)
Codominance, multiple alleles and sex linkage
Gene regulation, mutations and cancer
Lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids and tests
Microscopes: magnification, resolution and measuring cells
Gas exchange in fish (gills and countercurrent flow)
Translation and protein synthesis
Light-dependent reactions and photophosphorylation
Animal movement: taxis and kinesis
Linkage and interpreting genetic crosses
Cell differentiation and development
Proteins: structure (primary–quaternary) and functions
Cell fractionation and ultracentrifugation
Gas exchange in plants (leaf structure and stomata)
Mutations and their effects
Light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle)
Required practical 10: investigating animal responses (choice chambers/mazes)
Chi-squared test for genetic ratios
Stem cells and ethical considerations
Enzymes: induced fit, factors affecting rate and inhibition
The cell cycle and mitosis
Gas exchange in mammals (lungs and ventilation)
Meiosis and how variation is generated
Respiration: glycolysis and anaerobic pathways
Neurones and the nervous system
Populations, gene pools and allele frequencies
Epigenetics (methylation and histone modification)
Required practical 1: enzyme-controlled reaction rates
Required practical 2: root tip squashes and mitotic index
Digestion and absorption (enzymes, ileum, co-transport)
Genetic diversity and natural selection
Respiration: link reaction, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation
Action potentials and transmission speed
Hardy–Weinberg calculations and assumptions
RNA interference and post-transcriptional control
DNA and RNA structure
Cell membranes and transport (diffusion, osmosis, active transport)
Mass transport in mammals (heart, vessels, tissue fluid and lymph)
Investigating antimicrobial substances (aseptic technique)
Required practical 8: dehydrogenase activity in chloroplast extracts
Synapses and neuromuscular junctions
Natural selection, genetic drift and speciation
Genome projects, sequencing and bioinformatics
DNA replication (semi-conservative)
Required practical 3: water potential in plant tissue (calibration curve)
Haemoglobin and oxygen dissociation curves
Required practical 6: antimicrobials and microbial growth
Required practical 9: respiration rate in single-celled organisms
Muscle contraction and the sliding filament model
Ecosystems: populations, communities and succession
Recombinant DNA: enzymes, vectors and transformation
ATP and energy transfer
Required practical 4: investigating membrane permeability
Mass transport in plants (xylem, transpiration, phloem translocation)
Classification and phylogenetic relationships
Energy transfer in ecosystems (trophic levels, pyramids, efficiency)
Homeostasis and negative feedback
Conservation and maintaining biodiversity
PCR, electrophoresis and DNA probes
Water and inorganic ions (including pH and buffers)
Cell recognition and the immune system (including HIV and monoclonal antibodies)
Required practical 5: dissection of a gas exchange or mass transport system/organ
Biodiversity sampling and using data to compare habitats
Nutrient cycles and fertiliser impacts (nitrogen/phosphorus, eutrophication)
Blood glucose control (insulin, glucagon and diabetes)
Required practical 12: distribution of organisms in a habitat (fieldwork)
Genetic fingerprinting: methods, uses and ethics
Required practical 11: glucose calibration curve (colorimetry)
Osmoregulation: kidney, nephron and ADH
